The Modern Middle East (105 page)

intelligence agencies: Irani SAVAK,
145–52
;
mukhaberat,
95
,
217
,
223
,
226
,
231
,
279–80
; Pakistani ISI,
199–200
.
See also
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

international allies: trading partners,
377
; Turkey-Israel,
194
; U.S.-led coalition in Second Gulf War,
171
,
184
,
186
,
190
,
208
,
327
,
431n36
.
See also
confederations; international organizations; Pan-Arabism; summits; treaties

International Association of Jurists,
150

International Center for Transitional Justice,
286–87

International Monetary Fund (IMF),
243
,
283
,
356
,
367

international organizations: Amnesty International,
150
,
319
,
368
; Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC),
199
,
381
,
394
table,
401
; International Association of Jurists,
150
; League of Nations,
44
,
46
,
51
; NGOs (nongovernmental organizations),
285
,
287
,
399
; OPEC,
137
,
191
.
See also
confederations; United Nations

international relations.
See
foreign policy

Internet,
198
,
266–67
,
284
; social media,
284
,
292

interventionism: economic,
457n7
.
See also
rentierism; statism

intifadas,
323–36
,
345
,
451n48
; Al-Aqsa,
193
,
313
,
316
,
317
,
323
,
332–36
,
452n54
; children,
312
,
335
,
450n42
,
452n54
; first (1987–93),
86
,
302
,
311–17
,
323–31
,
450n42
; and living conditions in Occupied Territories,
307
,
312–13
,
323
,
451n50
; and Palestinian national identity,
86
,
86
table,
302
,
308
,
312–13
; peace process and,
86
,
308
,
313
,
327–31
; PLO and,
86
,
302
,
311–15
,
323
,
327
,
329–30
; and religious identity,
302
; Second Gulf War and,
186
,
327
; Sharon and,
336

investment.
See
foreign capital; loans

Iran,
1
,
51
,
56–62
,
137
,
141–84
,
403
; Ahmadinejad,
165–68
,
224–26
,
225
fig;
airliner shot down (1988),
181
,
430n27
; associations,
32
,
284
,
287
; axis of evil,
201
; Baghdad Pact,
110
; Basij,
161
,
166–67
,
179
; British and,
31
,
32
,
36
,
50
,
57
,
61
,
142–45
,
348
; Buyid family,
20
; censorship,
59
,
286
; CIA and,
110
,
145–46
,
157–58
,
160
,
426n11
; clerics/
ulama,
30
,
31
,
57–58
,
60
,
145
,
152–66
,
180
,
190
,
257
,
284
; Clinton and,
165
,
191
; Constitutional Revolution (1905–11),
31–33
,
56
,
61
,
142–43
,
284
; constitutions,
31
,
32
,
144
,
158
,
163–64
,
224
,
282
; contraceptives,
464n10
; coup (1921),
32–33
,
56
,
57
; coup (1953),
110
,
145
,
150
; crime punishments,
368
; cultural values,
161–62
,
165
,
228
,
279
; and democracy,
142
,
155
,
239
,
262
,
280
,
285–90
; economic development,
58–61
,
141–49
,
162–66
,
169
,
181
,
182
,
348–84
; economic reforms,
356–57
; environmental pollution,
397–99
; exclusionary state,
217
,
227
,
228
,
262
,
263
; fertility rates,
425n3
; and Germany,
61
,
142
,
415n74
; globalization and,
382
; Green Movement,
167
,
405
; Hezbollah ally,
289
; hostage crisis (1979–81),
155
,
157–61
,
171
,
173
,
176
,
197
,
428nn50
,
51
; Ilkhanids,
21–22
; inclusionary state,
215–17
,
223–29
,
262
,
263
,
367–68
; intellectuals,
146
,
151–52
,
165
,
257
,
258
,
286
; Iran-Contra Affair,
161
,
428n57
; Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC),
178
,
224–26
,
368
; Kurds,
2
,
143
,
176
; Land Reform Law (1962),
146–47
,
151
; Leader/
velayat faqih,
158–68
,
224
,
426n22
; local notables
(aʿyan),
31
; military,
58–59
,
146
,
153
,
161–62
,
166–67
,
175
,
178
,
180
,
224–26
,
368
; modernism,
57–61
,
66
,
142
,
147
,
152
,
156
,
235
; monarchy,
10
,
31–33
,
57–59
,
141–55
; Mongols,
21
; Mujahedeen guerrillas,
151
,
161
; Musaddiq,
144–47
,
150
,
426nn11
,
12
,
16
; and nationalism,
57
,
71–72
,
144
,
146
,
179
,
274
,
383
; nuclear program,
167
,
168
fig;
oil,
137
,
141
,
144
,
146
,
148
,
149
,
162
,
164
,
190
,
359
,
362
; opposition politics,
59
,
141–68
,
251
,
254–57
,
285–86
; Ottomans and,
2
,
23
; Persians,
2
,
18
,
20
,
29
,
175
; political parties,
58
,
148–61
,
251
,
399
; population,
425n3
; Qajars,
28
,
30–33
,
56–57
; Russians/Soviets and,
31
,
32
,
55
,
57
,
61
,
110
,
142–43
,
150
,
168
fig,
348
; Safavids,
22
,
23
,
28–30
,
411n65
; Sassanids,
10
,
17
,
18
; SAVAK,
145–52
; secular civil code,
59–60
,
415n66
; semiformal economy,
372
; Shiʿites,
23
,
29
,
30
,
57–58
,
152–53
,
190
,
275
; stateled social change,
58
,
285–90
,
384
; statism,
49
,
351
,
384
; Syria and,
190
; tribalism,
57
,
143
; Turkey and,
57
,
60
fig,
61
,
244
; urban areas,
11
,
12
,
21
,
29
,
30
,
408n14
; U.S. continuing tensions with,
167
,
404
; U.S. invasion of Iraq and,
203
,
403
; veil prohibitions,
60
,
414n47
; water,
400
,
401
; White Revolution (Inqilab-e Sefeed)/Revolution of the Shah and the People (1963),
146–48
,
152
; Zoroastrianism,
10
.
See also
Iranian
republicanism; Iranian revolution (1978–79); Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); Khomeini, Ayatollah Rouhollah; Majles (Iranian parliament); Pahlavi state; Tehran

Iran-Contra Affair,
161
,
428n57

Iranian republicanism,
56–57
,
145
,
155–69
; First Republic (1979–88),
155–63
,
173
,
216
,
372
; Second Republic (1989–97),
141
,
155–56
,
161–63
,
167
,
183
,
191
,
214
,
216
,
224
,
281
; Third Republic,
141
,
155–56
,
164–65
,
167–68
,
214
,
253

Iranian revolution (1978–79),
4
,
32
,
36
,
138
,
139–69
,
217
,
255
,
273
; Arab world and,
171
,
172
; conspiracy theories and,
274
; economy and,
141–49
,
352
,
364
; First Republic (1979–88),
155–63
,
173
,
216
,
372
; Iran-Iraq War and,
141
,
155
,
156
,
159–63
,
166
,
169
,
176
,
178
,
180
; Islam sweeping across Middle East after,
314
; Leader/
velayat faqih
rising out of,
158
,
161
,
163
,
168
,
426n22
; Revolutionary Committees (Komiteh),
156–57
; Revolutionary Council,
158
; Revolutionary Courts,
156–57
; shah and,
149–55
,
157–58
; spontaneous revolution,
141
,
151
; theology of discontent,
152

Iran-Iraq War (1980–88),
4
,
13
,
167
,
171–83
,
282
,
327
; Ahmadinejad and,
166
; Arab unity,
171
,
172
,
190
,
208–9
; attrition strategy of Iran,
180
; casualties,
171
,
179
,
181
; cease-fire attempts,
178
,
180
,
181
; economics,
180–82
,
184
; human wave attacks,
179
; “al-Hussein” missiles,
227
; Iranian revolution and,
141
,
155
,
156
,
159–63
,
166
,
169
,
176
,
178
,
180
; Iraqi military and,
179–82
,
184
,
185
,
227
; Israel and,
161
,
179
; Khatami and,
164
; long-term effect,
404
; PLO and,
392
; POWs,
181
; reconstruction after,
163
,
168–69
,
181–82
,
225
; Saddam’s Qadisiyya,
175
,
227
; Second Gulf War planned after,
172
,
182
; three phases,
177–80
; UN cease-fire resolution,
178
,
181
,
431n37

Iraq,
1
,
4
,
40
,
170–209
,
404
; Al-Maliki government,
207
; Arab nationalism,
72
,
113–14
,
171–75
,
177
,
191–92
,
208–9
; Arab Revolt,
39
; axis of evil,
190
,
201
; Baghdad Pact,
110
; Baʿthists,
110
,
116
,
173–77
,
189
,
206
,
219
,
226
,
251
,
438n45
; birth of,
39
; Britain and,
3
,
39–45
,
50
,
56
,
63
,
65–66
,
188
,
204–5
,
207
fig;
coup (1958),
42
,
110
,
113–14
,
174
,
218
; economic development,
180–84
,
351
,
361
,
364
; economic sanctions on,
199
,
382
; elections,
184
,
271–72
; environmental pollution,
399
; exclusionary/
mukhaberat
state,
217
,
226
,
280
; Faisal,
40
,
42
,
71
,
230
; Heidari,
257
; inclusionary state,
215
,
223–27
,
367–68
,
437n26
; and Israel,
118
,
131–32
,
179
,
184
,
186
,
190
; Khomeini exile in,
147
,
153
; Kurds,
2
,
51
,
180
,
188
,
208
,
431nn41
,
42
; Mosul,
51
; National Assembly,
184
,
224
; nationalism,
44
,
179
,
274
; Nestorian Church,
10
; oil,
50
,
180
,
202–4
,
359
; postinvasion,
406
; rentierism,
359
,
361
; and Sadat initiative,
455n83
; Sassanids,
10
,
11
,
17
; separatists,
266
; Shiʿites,
44
,
147
,
173
,
179
,
187
fig,
188
,
206
,
208
,
431n41
; statism,
351
; urban populations,
12
,
408n14
; U.S. occupation,
189
,
201–7
,
337
,
342
,
406
; U.S. withdrawal (2009–11),
5
,
207
; water,
402
; and weapons of mass destruction,
171
,
180–81
,
185
,
188
,
203
,
204
; women and war,
72
fig,
175
fig,
187
fig,
207
fig,
208
fig;
Zoroastrianism,
10
.
See also
Baghdad; Iran-Iraq War (1980–88); Mesopotamia; Saddam Hussein; Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003); Second Gulf War (1990–91)