The Modern Middle East (103 page)

elites.
See
classes; political elites

empire form,
27
.
See also
Byzantine Empire; colonialism; Ottoman Empire; Roman Empire

employment: Arab Spring and uprisings (2011) and,
266
,
267
,
298
; corporatism and,
277
; day laborers and farmworkers from Israeli-Occupied Territories,
311
; foreign workers in oil,
355
,
360
,
362
,
369
,
393
,
394
table,
416n83
; jobs that need to be created,
356
table;
Palestinian,
321–23
; rentier economies,
229
,
360
,
363
; rural to urban migrants,
365
; unemployment,
141
,
261
,
266
,
272
,
323
; youth,
266
,
291
,
298
,
323
,
355
,
393
.
See also
civil service/public employment; economic sectors; labor organizations

enlightenment, Jewish
haskala,
74
,
417n14

Entente Cordial (1904),
38

entrepreneurs,
261
,
277
,
369–72
.
See also
business; economic sectors

environment: pollution,
388
,
396–401
; protection,
399
,
464n20
.
See also
geography

Erbakan, Necmettin,
243–44

Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip,
244

Esfahan, Iran,
12
,
29
,
30

Eshkol, Levi,
117
,
119
,
135
,
246–47

Ethiopia, water,
402–3

ethnicity,
179
; Iranian diversity,
29
,
58–59
; Islamic divisions,
18
; Israeli discrimination based on,
241
,
246
,
263
,
303
,
305
,
318–22
,
322
fig;
Jews in Israel,
2
,
73–84
,
241
,
302–6
; Middle Eastern homogenous,
1–2
,
3
; stateless,
2
,
307–8
; Turks,
2
,
241
.
See also
anti-Semitism; Arab-Israeli ethnicity; Arabs; Jews; Kurds; national identities; Persians

Euphrates River,
12
,
402–4

Europe,
36
; and democracy,
140
,
240–41
,
265
,
283
; fascism,
50
,
51
,
76
,
91
,
301
,
302
,
330
; Hapsburg Austria,
24
,
27
; and Ottomans,
22
,
23–24
,
25
,
37
,
71
; print capitalism,
69
; science and technology identified with,
34
; “Spring of Nations”/”Springtime of Peoples” revolutions (1848),
405
; Velvet Revolutions,
405
.
See also
Britain; Eastern Europe; European colonialism; European Jews; European Union; France; Germany; Italy; Russians; Spain

European colonialism,
7–8
,
35–51
,
65
,
405
; Arab nationalism and,
71
; British,
2–3
,
8
,
13
,
28
,
32
,
36–51
,
45
map,
56
,
65–66
,
218
,
387
; French,
2–3
,
13
,
36–50
,
45
map,
65–66
,
79–80
,
98–107
,
218
,
387
; Italian,
50
,
99
; Zionism and,
77
.
See also
mandatory protectorates

European Jews,
42
,
51
,
73–77
; anti-Semitism toward,
70
,
73–74
,
301
,
417n15
; Dreyfus affair,
74
,
75
,
417n15
; Holocaust/Second World War,
51
,
77
,
82
,
106
; migration to Palestine/Israel,
73–77
,
76
table,
88
,
300
,
301
,
303
; Russia,
42
,
74
,
303
,
305

European Union,
165
,
283
,
297
,
339
,
377

Evian Agreements (March 1962),
100
,
104

exclusionary states,
213–29
,
263
,
416n83
,
437–38nn26
,
36

exports: high-technology,
375–77
,
462n84
,
463n85
; oil,
377
; primary goods,
348
.
See also
oil

Ezz, Ahmed,
271

Fahd, King,
271
,
439n77

Faisal, Saudi Crown Prince,
65
,
233

Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein ibn Ali,
42
,
44
,
71
,
230

families.
See
ruling families

faqih
/Leader, Iran,
158–68
,
224
,
426n22

Farouq, Egyptian King,
91–94

fascism, European,
50
,
51
,
77
,
91
,
301
,
302
,
330

fasting, Islamic,
2
,
17
,
105
,
131

Fatah, PLO,
117
,
124
,
315–16
,
338
,
339

Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834),
30–31

Fatimids,
20–21

Fazilet party, Turkey,
259

Fedayeen, Palestinian,
96
,
117
,
123
,
124–25
,
126
,
138

Fedayeen-e Khalq, Iran,
151

Feith, Douglas,
204

fertility rates,
389
,
392
table,
394–96
,
425n3

Fighters for the Freedom of Israel (Lehi),
80

Finkelstein, Norman,
330

Flapan, Simha,
82

Floor, Willem,
30

food: foreign imports,
394–95
; Islamic fasting,
2
,
17
,
105
,
131
.
See also
agriculture

foreign capital,
260
,
348
; Foreign Direct Investment (FDI),
374–77
,
376
table,
462n84
; rentierism and,
361
; statism and,
350
,
357
; Turkey,
55
.
See also
aid; capitalism; loans; multinational corporations

foreign conspiracies,
161
,
183–84
,
188
,
274
,
275

foreign migrants.
See
migration

foreign policy: Arab identity in,
192
; Barak,
331
; British diplomatic objectives in Middle East,
36–37
,
39
,
44
; Bush Doctrine,
200–201
,
433n72
; Egypt,
47
,
95–98
,
134
; Eisenhower Doctrine,
110–11
; French diplomatic objectives in Middle East,
38
,
44
,
58
; Iran’s Khatami and,
164–65
; pax Americana,
196
,
199
,
201
; U.S. dual containment,
191
,
199
,
201
; U.S. human rights,
150
,
198
,
318
; U.S. Middle East,
110–11
,
170
,
172
,
191
,
196–207
.
See also
colonialism; conflicts; international allies; wars

France: and British rule in India,
36
; Cilicia,
28
; colonialism,
2–3
,
13
,
36–50
,
45
map,
65–66
,
79–80
,
98–107
,
218
,
387
; diplomatic objectives in Middle East,
38
,
44
,
58
; diplomatic retreat from Middle East,
110
; Dreyfus affair,
74
,
417n15
; and Egypt,
23
,
96–97
; Fifth Republic,
103
; Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and,
260
; Khomeini exile in Paris,
153
; and Lebanon,
38
,
44
,
50
,
248
; loans to Ottomans,
38
; in Maghreb,
3
,
38
,
47–50
,
49
fig,
65
,
98–107
,
116
,
218
,
237
; revolution,
25
,
140
,
168
; Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916),
38–41
,
41
map,
44
,
412n19
; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003),
204–5

Free Democratic Party, Turkey,
54
,
242

Freemasons,
284

Free Officers: Egypt,
92
,
93
,
127
,
218
; Iraq,
218
; Libya,
218

fundamentalism: Gush Emunium,
321
; Islamic,
194–96
,
199–201
,
253–64
,
274
.
See also
Islamism

Gamaʿa Islamiyya, Egypt,
222
,
260
,
280
,
369

Gaza Strip: Arab-Israeli wars,
97
,
119
,
135–36
; economic and cultural divisions,
308
; economic strangulation,
321–23
,
332
; Egyptian section,
84
; house demolitions,
123
,
317–19
,
418n35
; human rights abuses by Israelis,
339
,
452n54
;
intifada,
86
,
311
,
314
,
315
; Islam increasing in,
313
; Israeli
air strikes,
339–41
,
341
fig,
342
fig;
Israeli occupation,
123
,
128
,
135–36
,
311
,
314
,
319–22
,
332
,
339
; after Israeli withdrawal,
339
; Operation Iron Cast,
339
; Operation Pillars of Defense,
339–41
; Palestinian depopulation,
317
; Palestinian Muslims,
310
,
314
; Palestinian population,
107
,
123
,
309
; peace process and,
135
,
326
,
328–29
; poverty,
322–23
; refugee camps,
309
,
317
,
450n39
; rocket attacks from,
339–41
,
344
fig;
Sharon “Disengagement Plan,”
338–39
; water,
402

GDP (gross domestic product),
226
,
323
,
352
,
353–54
tables,
360
,
377

Gellner, Ernest,
69

gender: fertility rates and,
389
,
395–96
.
See also
marriages; women

Geneva Convention (1947),
318

geography: caliphates and,
22
; deserts,
6
,
12
; Islam and,
9
,
18
; Israel,
73
; mountains,
12
; nationalism and,
68–69
; population and,
12–13
,
33
.
See also
border conflicts; environment; land; water

Germany: Baghdad Railway,
37–38
; French competition with,
37
; Great War,
28
,
38
; Iran and,
61
,
142
,
415n74
; Jews,
74
; loans to Ottomans,
38
; Nazis/Holocaust,
51
,
82
,
301
,
330
; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003),
204–5
; Versailles Treaty,
42

Gerner, Deborah,
299