The Modern Middle East (108 page)

legislatures.
See
parliaments

legitimacy, state: after Arab Spring,
298
; cultural,
279
; democratization and,
274
,
276
,
279
,
290
; Iraq,
175–76
; Islamic fundamentalists and,
260
; monarchies,
42
,
101–2
,
215
,
229–38
,
439n61
; nationalist,
274–76
; opposition parties and,
251
,
290
; “patron state,”
277–78
; PLO,
136
,
308
,
449n28
; redefining,
298
; repression and,
279
; ruling bargain and,
274–76
,
279
.
See also
central authority

Levant,
1
; Christians,
10
,
37
,
38
,
44
,
247–49
,
288
,
334
; French colonialism,
3
,
37
,
38
,
65
,
79–80
.
See also
Lebanon; Syria

Levy, David,
306

Lewis, Bernard,
54
,
70
,
411n61

liberalization: from above,
460n50
; economic,
219
,
261
,
271–72
,
350–51
,
357–65
; inclusionary states,
227
,
228
; political,
215
,
219
,
234–35
,
244–45
,
262
,
280–90
,
358
,
372–73
; repression mixed with,
268
,
281
; sultanistic states,
215
,
227
,
231
,
234–35
.
See also
democracy

Liberation Rally, Egypt,
95
,
113

Libya,
1
,
190
,
382
; Arab Spring and revolution (2011),
5
,
217
,
267
,
275
,
291
,
294–95
; British-French administration,
99
; conspiracy theories about,
274
; constitutions,
5
; coup (1969),
218
,
226
; inclusionary state,
214
,
215
,
223–28
,
367–68
; Islamic expansion into,
17
; Italians in,
50
,
99
; monarchy,
116
; nationalism,
73
,
99–100
,
274
; oil-based rentierism,
359
; Ottomans,
23
,
47
,
50
; Pan-Arabism,
7
,
72
; patrimonialism,
276
; Revolutionary Committees,
368
; and Sadat initiative,
455n83
; statism,
351
; Turkey and,
244
; Waddan,
12
; youth population,
266
.
See also
Qaddafi, Muammar

life expectancy,
388–89

Likud (Unity) Party,
135
; IDF influence,
247
; and Jewish settlements,
319–20
; Mizrachim and,
305–6
; Netanyahu,
204
,
330–31
; peace process adrift,
341–42
; and Sadat peace proposal,
326
; Sharon,
334
,
336
; U.S. conservatives and,
204

literature: Arab nationalist,
87
,
90
,
122
; Iranian Third Republic,
165
; poetry,
1
,
56
,
257
,
414n56
; after Six-Day War,
122
,
126
.
See also
intellectuals

Lloyd George, David,
43

loans: British and Russian to Iran,
31
; European to Ottomans,
38
; international bank,
243
,
283
,
356
,
361
; oil,
63
,
360–61
.
See also
aid; foreign capital

local nation builders (1920s),
38
,
51–67
,
69
,
70
,
142
.
See also
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal; Bourguiba, Habib; Mohammed V; Pahlavi, Reza Shah

local notables: Iran’s
aʿyan,
31
; Lebanon’s
zuʿama,
247
,
250
,
288
;
Palestinian
aʿyan,
310
.
See also
local nation builders; political elites

local popular committees, Palestinian,
311

London
Times:
Arab house demolitions,
418n35
; Saddam’s cult of personality,
177

Luciani, Giacomo,
136–37

Lurs tribe, Iran,
57

Lynch, Marc,
298

Madrid Peace Conference (1991),
326
,
327

Maghreb: Berbers,
2
,
48
,
101
;
colons,
48–50
,
99
,
101
,
102–3
,
108
; defined,
1
; French in,
3
,
38
,
47–50
,
49
fig,
65
,
98–107
,
116
,
218
,
237
; independence in,
38
,
47–50
,
98–107
,
218
,
237
; languages,
3
; nationalism,
73
,
96–107
,
116
; Ottomans,
23
,
47–49
,
106
.
See also
Algeria; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia

Mahdi,
29

Mahfouz, Naguib (1911–2006),
126
,
257

Mahmud II (r. 1808–39),
24

Majles (Iranian parliament),
31–32
,
145
,
286
; First Republic,
156
,
159–62
,
224
; Karroubi,
166
; Khamenei,
167
; “questioning the president” (2012),
167
; Reza Khan and,
56–59
,
142–45
; Second Republic,
162–63
; Third Republic,
164–65

majlis,
233
,
237
,
273
,
284
.
See also
Majles (Iranian parliament)

Makhlouf, Rami,
270

makhzen,
283
,
445n82

Makiya, Kanan,
189

Malaysia, Islamism,
258

Mamluks,
21

mandatory protectorates,
13
,
39
,
44–47
,
45
map,
50
,
51
,
67
; Iraq,
44
,
50
,
56
; Maghreb,
48
,
50
,
65
,
237
; Palestine,
44
,
46
,
50
,
51
,
79–80
,
85
,
86–87
,
86
table.
See also
colonialism

Maoists, Iranian Fedayeen-e Khalq,
151

Mapai Party, Israel,
75–76
,
119

Maronites,
38
,
44
,
247–49

marriages: age of,
389
; divorce rights for women,
256
; Jewish ethnic groups,
252–53
,
304
; multiple,
14
,
105

martyrdom,
208
; Iran-Iraq War,
179
; Palestinian,
315
,
335
.
See also
suicide bombings

Marv, Iran,
11
,
21

massacres: Algerian civil war (1990s),
368
; of Armenians,
27
,
410n60
; Deir Yassin Palestinians,
82–83
,
419n43
; Hama (Syria),
223
; of Kurds,
188
,
431n42

mawali,
19
,
409n35

McMahon, Sir Henry/Hussein-McMahon Correspondence,
37
,
39
,
40

Mecca,
2
,
11–18
,
255
,
333
; caliphate,
20
; controversy over three pagan goddesses,
407n2
; Hussein-McMahon Correspondence,
39
,
40
; Saud clan,
62–63

media: exclusionary state,
217
; official nationalism and,
274
.
See also
arts; Internet; newspapers; radio; technology; television

Medina,
11
,
12
,
15–17
,
50
,
255
,
333
; caliphate/political center,
12
,
18
,
20
,
62
; Compact of,
15–16
; established,
15
; Saud clan,
63

Mehmet II the Conqueror (Fatih),
22

Meir, Golda,
77
,
128
,
129
,
135

Mendès-France, Pierre,
103

MEROSUR (Mercado Comun del Sur),
377

Meshaal, Khaled,
343
fig

Mesopotamia: cities,
11
,
38
,
408n7
.
See also
Iraq

Mez, Adam,
19

middle class: economic liberalization,
261
; exclusionary states,
221
; exit from politics,
279–80
; and informal sector,
365
,
368
; Iran,
32
,
141
,
150
,
151
,
162
,
287
; Iraq,
174
; Islamists and,
261–62
; Mizrachim,
306
; Morocco,
287
; Nasser,
93
; opposition
parties,
251
,
260
,
280
; Palestinian,
307–8
,
310
; quasi-democratic state,
240
,
241
; rentier economies and,
360
; ruling bargain and,
265–66
,
279
; semiformal sector and,
370
; state bourgeoisie,
349
; sultanistic states,
215
,
231
; unofficial nationalism,
274–75

Middle East,
2–5
,
9–209
; anti-Americanism,
186
,
196–99
,
207–8
; challenges,
387–406
; defined,
1
; four defining periods (contemporary),
35
; issues,
5
,
211–406
; Mizrachim from,
303–4
; modern era’s beginning,
3–4
,
36
; unifying characteristics,
1–3
; “veritable kingdom of the old,”
265
.
See also
Arabian peninsula; colonialism; conflicts; cultural values; economic development; ethnicity; Iran; Iraq; Israel; Levant; North Africa; Palestinians; politics; population; religions; states; Turkey

Middle East and North Africa Economic Conference, Qatar,
193

migration: and corporatization of labor,
277
; day laborers and farmworkers from Israeli-Occupied Territories,
311
; European Jewry to Palestine/Israel
(aliya),
73–77
,
76
table,
85
,
88
,
300
,
301
,
303
,
304–5
; foreign workers in oil,
355
,
360
,
362
,
369
,
393
,
394
table,
416n83
; Italians to Libya,
50
; Jews to Israel (1990–2007),
303
; to Mecca,
15
; Middle Eastern and African Jewry to Palestine,
303–4
; nomadic,
11–12
; and popular militia,
368
; rural to urban,
255
,
353
,
365
,
366
,
368
,
396
,
408n14
; Zionists to U.S.,
76
.
See also
refugees

military,
213
; in Afghanistan conflicts,
195
,
199–200
; Algeria,
220–22
,
270–71
,
368
,
369
; Arab nationalism post-1948 and,
90
; Arab uprisings (2011),
221
,
292–95
; cabinet members in,
220
,
224
; corporatism and,
277
; Cossack brigade,
55
; and democratization,
240–44
,
262
; depoliticization,
243
,
244–45
; exclusionary states,
218–22
; Hezbollah militia,
249
; informal economic sector,
368
; Iran,
58–59
,
146
,
153
,
161–62
,
166–67
,
175
,
178
,
180
,
224–26
,
368
; Iran-Contra Affair,
161
,
428n57
; Israel-Iran deals,
161
; Jordan,
46
,
231
,
237
; Lebanon,
248
,
249
; Morocco,
102
,
237–38
; navies,
36
,
37
,
180
,
181
,
196
; Ottoman,
23
,
24
; Palestinian,
82
; Palestinian Fedayeen commandos,
96
,
117
,
123
,
124–25
,
126
,
138
; Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA),
84
,
124
; quasi-democratic states,
240
,
241–47
,
263
; security state demilitarization,
270
; sultanistic states,
230
,
232
; Syria,
109
,
111
,
113
,
117
,
129
,
221
,
289
; Tunisia,
292
; Turkey,
53
,
240–44
,
247
,
263
,
283
,
348
; Turkey-Israel alliances,
194
; U.S. hostage crisis,
159
; U.S. invasion of Iraq,
203–7
; U.S.-Iran deals,
146
,
161
; U.S. Middle East and Central Asia presence,
198
,
201
,
203
; U.S. war on terrorism,
195
; Yemen,
114
; Zionist,
75–76
,
79–80
,
79
fig,
82–83
,
88
.
See also
Egyptian military; Free Officers; Iraqi military; Israeli Defense Forces (IDF); military coups; wars; weapons of mass destruction