The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (68 page)

11
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G. W. Anderson
et al.
,
Journal of the American Chemistry Society
, 1945, Vol. 67, p. 2197.

12
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R. C. Cochrane, ‘The Chemotherapy of Leprosy',
BMJ
, 1952, Vol. 2, p. 1220.

13
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J. C. Henquin, ‘The Fiftieth Anniversary of Hypoglycaemic Sulphonamides',
Diabetologia
, 1992, Vol. 25, pp. 907–12.

14
.
Walter Sneader,
Drug Prototypes and Their Exploitation
.

15
.
Leonard Engel,
Medicine Makers of Kalamazoo
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

James M. Edmonson, ‘History of the Instruments for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy',
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
, 1991, Vol. 37, pp. S27–54.

Charles J. Filipi, ‘Historical Review: Diagnostic Laparoscopy and Beyond',
Surgical Laparoscopy
, ed. Karl A. Zucker (St Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing Inc., 1991).

William S. Haubrick, ‘Gastrointestinal Endoscopy',
The Growth of Gastroenterologic Knowledge During the Twentieth Century
, ed. Joseph B. Kirsner (Lea & Febiger, 1994).

Bryan Jennett,
High Technology Medicine: Benefits and Burdens
(Oxford: OUP, 1986).

W. Y. Lau, ‘History of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery',
World Journal of Surgery
, 1997, Vol. 21, pp. 444–53.

Grzegorz Litynski,
Highlights in the History of Laparoscopy
(Berlin: Barbara Bernert-Verlag, 1996).

Stanley Reiser,
Medicine and the Reign of Technology
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).

David Rosin (ed.),
Minimal Access General Surgery
(Abingdon: Radcliffe Medical Press, 1994).

James W. Smith, ‘Microsurgery: Review of the Literature and Discussion of Microtechniques',
Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
, 1966, Vol. 37, pp. 227–43.

Susumu Tamai, ‘History of Microsurgery',
Microsurgery
, 1993, Vol. 14, pp. 6–13.

J. E. A. Wickham, ‘Future Developments in Minimally Invasive Surgery',
BMJ
, 1994, Vol. 308, pp. 193–6.

1
.
Bryan Jennett,
High Technology Medicine: Benefits and Burdens
.

2
.
J. Anthony Seibert, ‘One Hundred Years of Medical Diagnostic Imaging Technology',
Health Physics
, 1995, Vol. 69, pp. 695–719. See also G. N. Handsfield, ‘Computerised Transverse Axial Scanning',
British Journal of Radiology
, 1973, Vol. 46, pp. 1016–22;F. H. Doyle
et al.
, ‘Imaging of the Brain by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance',
The Lancet
, 1981, Vol. 2, pp. 53–7.

3
.
See references for chapters ‘1955: Open-Heart Surgery – The Last Frontier' and ‘1961: New Hips for Old'.

4
.
Susumu Tamai, ‘History of Microsurgery',
Microsurgery
, 1993, Vol. 15, pp. 6–13. See also James W. Smith, ‘Microsurgery: Review of the Literature and Discussion of Microtechniques',
Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
, 1966, Vol. 37, pp. 227–43.

5
.
Howard P. House, ‘The Evolution of Otosclerosis Surgery',
Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America
, 1993, Vol. 26, pp. 323–33. See also C. O. Nylen, ‘The Microscope in Aural Surgery: Its First Use and Later Development',
Acta Otolaryngolica Supplement
, 1954, Vol. 116, pp. 226–40.

6
.
Harold Ridley, ‘Intra-ocular Acrylic Lenses',
Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom
, 1951, Vol. 71, pp. 617–21. See also Harold Ridley, ‘Intra-ocular Acrylic Lenses',
British Journal of Ophthalmology
, 1952, Vol. 36, pp. 113–22; Harold Ridley, ‘The Story of Acrylic Lenses, 1949–62',
Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia
, 1962, Vol. 15, pp. 53–61.

7
.
Daniel Albert,
The History of Ophthalmology
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).

8
.
Ch'en Chung-Y
et al.
, ‘Salvage of the Forearm Following Complete Traumatic Amputation',
Chinese Medical Journal
, 1963, Vol. 82, pp. 632–8.

9
.
Julius S. Jacobson
et al.
, ‘Microsurgery as an Aid to Middle Cerebral Artery Endarterectomy',
Journal of Neurosurgery
, 1962, Vol. 19, pp. 108–15. See also W. M. Lougheed, ‘The Diploscope in Intracranial Aneurysm Surgery: Results in Forty Patients',
Canadian
Journal of Surgery
, 1969, Vol. 12, pp. 75–82; Eugene S. Flamm, ‘Cerebral Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Haemorrhage',
A History of Neurosurgery
, ed. Samuel H. Greenblatt (Oxford: Blackwell/American Association of Neurosurgeons, 1997); Steven T. Onesti, ‘Cerebral Revascularization: A Review',
Neurosurgery
, 1989, Vol. 25, pp. 618–23; J. Lawrence Pool, ‘The Development of Modern Intracranial Aneurysm Surgery',
Neurosurgery
, 1977, Vol. 1, pp. 233–7.

10
.
Antony F. Wallace,
The Progress of Plastic Surgery: An Introductory History
(Oxford: Wilhelm A. Meeuws, 1982). See also Sir Archibald McIndoe, ‘Total Reconstruction of the Burnt Face',
British Journal of Plastic Surgery
, 1983, Vol. 36, pp. 410–20; Y. Godwin, ‘Time is the Healer: McIndoe's Guinea Pigs Fifty Years On',
British Journal of Plastic Surgery
, 1997, Vol. 50, pp. 88–98.

11
.
Rollin K. Daniel and G. Ian Taylor, ‘Distant Transfer of an Island Flap by Macrovascular Anastomoses',
Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
, 1973, Vol. 52, pp. 1111–17. See also Bernard M. O'Brien
et al.
, ‘Successful Transfer of a Large Island Flap from the Groin to the Foot by Microvascular Anastomoses',
Plastic Reconstructive Surgery
, 1973, Vol. 52, pp. 271–6.

12
.
James G. Gow, ‘Harold Hopkins and Optical Systems for Urology: An Appreciation',
Urology
1998, Vol. 52, pp. 152–7.

13
.
H. H. Hopkins and N. S. Kapany, ‘A Flexible Fibrescope, Using Static Scanning',
Nature
, 1954, Vol. 173, pp. 39–40. See also Steven F. Dierdorf, ‘The Physics of Fibreoptic Endoscopy',
Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine
, 1995, Vol. 62, pp. 1–9; William S. Haubrich, ‘The Advent and Evolution of Endoscopy',
Gastroenterology
, 1997, Vol. 117, pp. 591–3.

14
.
Basil Hirschowitz, ‘A Personal History of the Fibrescope',
Gastroenterology
, 1979, Vol. 76, pp. 864–9. See also Basil Hirschowitz, ‘Endoscopic Examination of the Stomach and Duodenal Cap With a Fibrescope',
The Lancet
, 1961, Vol. 1, pp. 1074–7; Basil Hirschowitz, ‘Fibreoptics and Research in the Last Twenty-five Years',
Endoscopy
, 1980 (supplement), pp. 13–18.

15
.
Christopher B. Williams, ‘Flexible Endoscopy at St Mark's',
Contributions from St Mark's Hospital, London
, ed. Charles Mann (Nymphenburg, 1988). See also J. Loren Pritcher, ‘Therapeutic Endoscopy and Bleeding Ulcers: A Historical Overview',
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
, 1990, Vol. 36, pp. S2–S7.

16
.
J. Gow, personal communication, 1997.

17
.
H. H. Hopkins, ‘The Modern Urological Endoscope',
Handbook of Urological Endoscopy
, eds J. G. Gow and H. H. Hopkins (Churchill-Livingstone, 1978).

18
.
K. Semm, ‘History',
Operative Gynaecologic Endoscopy
, ed. J. S. Sanfilippo (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989).

19
.
Patrick C. Steptoe,
Laparoscopy in Gynaecology
(E & S Livingstone, 1967).

20
.
W. Y. Lau, ‘History of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery',
World Journal of Surgery
, 1997, Vol. 21, pp. 444–53.

21
.
Brereton B. Strafford, ‘A Historical Review of Shoulder Arthroscopy',
Orthopaedic Clinics of North America
, 1993, Vol. 24, pp. 1–3.

22
.
H. Stammberger, ‘The Evolution of Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery',
ENT Journal
, 1994, Vol. 73, pp. 451–5. See also Steven S. Sachs, ‘Fibreoptics in Otolaryngology',
Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine
, 1995, Vol. 62, pp. 47–9.

23
.
‘Advances in Laparoscopic Urology: History and Development of Procedures',
Urology
, 1994, Vol. 43, pp. 420–7.

24
.
M. L. Clark, ‘Upper Intestinal Endoscopy',
The Lancet
, 1985, Vol. 1, p. 629. See also Howard M. Spiro, ‘My Kingdom for a Camera: Some Comments on Medical Technology',
NEJM
, 14 November 1974, pp. 1070–2.

1
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Selman Waksman, ‘The Role of Antibiotics in Nature',
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
, 1961, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 271–2.

2
.
Ronald Bentley, ‘Secondary Metabolites Play Primary Role in Human Affairs',
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
, 1997, Vol. 40, pp. 197–219. See also Ronald Bentley, ‘Microbial Secondary Metabolites Play Important Roles in Medicine: Prospects for Discovery of New Drugs',
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
, 1997, Vol. 40, pp. 365–93; D. Chadwick (ed.),
Secondary Metabolites: Their Function in Evolution
, Ciba Foundation Symposium 171 (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1992).

3
.
D. J. Ingle, ‘From A–F',
Pharos
, July 1964, pp. 77–80.

4
.
Michael Denton,
Evolution: A Theory in Crisis
(Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler, 1986).

PART II: THE END OF THE AGE OF OPTIMISM

1
.
Office of Health Economics,
Compendium of Health Statistics
(Office of Health Economics, 1984).

2
.
Colin Dollery,
The End of an Age of Optimism
(Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1978).

3
.
James B. Wyngaarden, ‘The Clinical Investigator as an Endangered Species',
NEJM
, 1979, Vol. 301, pp. 1254–9.

4
.
Editorial, ‘A Dearth of New Drugs',
Nature
, 1980, Vol. 283, p. 609.

5
.
Fred Steward and George Wibberley, ‘Drug Innovation: What's Slowing it Down?',
Nature
, 1980, Vol. 284, pp. 118–20.

6
.
Sir Ronald Bodley-Scott (ed.),
The Medical Annual
(Bristol: John Wright & Sons, 1945–93).

1
.
Richard J. Wurtman and Robert L. Bettiker, ‘The Slowing of Treatment Discovery, 1965–95',
Nature Medicine
, 1995, Vol. 1, pp. 1122–5. See also Joseph DiMasi, ‘New Drug Development in the United States, 1963–90',
Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
, 1991, Vol. 50, pp. 471–86.

2
.
A. Willman, ‘Thalidomide and Foetal Abnormalities',
BMJ
, 17 February 1962, p. 477. See also Editorial, ‘Thalidomide's Long Shadow',
BMJ
, 13 November 1976, pp. 1155–6.

3
.
M. Weatherall, ‘An End to the Search for New Drugs?',
Nature
, 1982, Vol. 296, pp. 387–90. See also Max Tishler, ‘Drug Discovery: Background and Foreground',
Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
, 1973, Vol. 14, pp. 479–86.

4
.
J. W. Black and J. S. Stephenson, ‘Pharmacology of a New Adrenergic Beta Receptor Blocking Compound',
The Lancet
, 1962, Vol. 2, pp. 311–15. See also J. W. Brimblecombe
et al.
, ‘Cimetidine: A Non-thiourea H2 Receptor Antagonist',
Journal of International Medical Research
, 1975, Vol. 3, pp. 86–92.

5
.
Alan S. Perelson
et al.
,
Nature
, 1997, Vol. 387, pp. 188–91. See also Editorial, ‘New Hope in HIV Disease',
Science
, 1996, Vol. 279,
pp. 1988–90; Mei-hwei Chang
et al.
, ‘Universal Hepatitis B Vaccination in Taiwan and the Incidence of Hepato-cellular Cancer in Children',
NEJM
, 1997, Vol. 336, pp. 1855–60.

6
.
The top-ten pharmaceutical products in 1993 were as follows: Zantac, Renitec, Ciproxin, Voltaren, Zovirax, Capoten, Augmentin, Mevacor, Procardia and Prozac.

7
.
Roger S. Rittmaster, ‘Finasteride',
NEJM
, 1994, Vol. 330, pp. 120–4. See also G. J. Gormley
et al.
, ‘The Effect of Finasteride in Men With Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia',
NEJM
, 1992, Vol. 327,p. 1185.

8
.
Richard Appleton, ‘The Anti-epileptic Drugs',
Archives of Disease in Childhood
, 1996, Vol. 75, pp. 256–62. See also Gilles Mignot, ‘Drug Trials in Epilepsy: New Drugs Have Been Poorly Assessed',
BMJ
, 1996, Vol. 313, p. 1157.

9
.
W. I. McDonald, ‘New Treatments for Multiple Sclerosis',
BMJ
, 1995, Vol. 310, pp. 345–7. See also Peter Harvey, ‘Why Interferon Beta 1B Was Licensed Is a Mystery',
BMJ
, 1996, Vol. 313, pp. 297–8; Cornelius Kelly, ‘Drug Treatments for Alzheimer's Disease',
BMJ
, 1997, Vol. 314, pp. 693–4; Nicholas Wagner, ‘Local Committee Has Declined to Approve NHS Hospital Prescription of Donepezil',
BMJ
, 1997, Vol. 314, p. 1555.