The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (64 page)

4: 1952: Chlorpromazine and the Revolution in Psychiatry

GENERAL READING

Arvid Carlsson,
Annual Review of Neuroscience
, 1978, Vol. 10, pp. 19–40.

David Healy, ‘The History of British Psychopharmacology',
150 Years of British Psychiatry, Vol. 2: The Aftermath
, ed. Hugh Freeman and German E. Berrios (Athlone Press, 1996).

‘History of Psychopharmacology',
Journal of Psychopharmacology
, 1990, Vol. 4 (Special Issue).

Edward Shorter,
A History of Psychiatry
(Chichester: John Wiley &Sons, 1997).

REFERENCES

1
.
Brian Barraclough in conversation with David Clark,
Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists
, 1986, Vol. 10, pp. 42–9.

2
.
J. Elkes and C. Elkes, ‘Effect of Chlorpromazine on the Behaviour of Chronically Overactive Psychotic Patients',
BMJ
, 4 September 1954, pp. 560–5.

3
.
H. Rolin, ‘Festina Lente: A Psychiatric Odyssey', The Memoire Club,
BMJ
, 1990.

4
.
F. Peters,
The World Next Door
(New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1949).

5
.
Giuseppe Epifanio in
Rivista di Patologia Nervosa e Mentale
, 1915, Vol. 20, pp. 273–308.

6
.
M. Sakel in
Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift
, 1934, Vol. 84, pp. 112–13.

7
.
L. von Meduna in
Zeitschrift für die Gesante Neurologie
, 1935, p.237.

8
.
Ugo Cerletti in
Archivio Generale di Neurologia
, 1938, Vol. 19, pp. 266–8.

9
.
E Moniz, ‘Prefrontal Leucotomy and the Treatment of Mental Disorders',
American Journal of Psychiatry
, 1937, Vol. 93, pp. 1379–85.

10
.
Aubrey Lewis, ‘On the Place of Physical Treatment in Psychiatry',
British Medical Bulletin
, 1945, Vol. 3, p. 614.

11
.
H. Laborit in
Acta Chirurgica Belgica
, 1949, Vol. 48, pp. 485–92.

12
.
A comprehensive account of Laborit's discovery of chlorpromazine is to be found in Judith P. Swazey,
Chlorpromazine in Psychiatry: A Study of Therapeutic Innovation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974). See also Anne E. Caldwell,
Origins of Psychopharmacology from CPZ to LSD
(Charles C. Thomas, 1970).

13
.
Paul Charpentier and Simone Courvoisier in the
Journal of Clinical Experimental Psychopharmacology
, 1956, Vol. 17, p. 25.

14
.
Jean Delay, Pierre Deniker and J.-M. Harl, ‘Utilisation en Thérapeutique psychiatrique d'une phenothiazine d'action centrale élective',
Annales Medico-Psychologiques
, 1952, Vol. 110, pp. 112–20. See also E. Shorter,
A History of Psychiatry
.

15
.
Roland Kuhn in
Schweizerich Medizinisch Wochenschrift
, 1957, Vol. 87, pp. 1135–40. See also G. E. Crane, ‘Psychiatric Side-effects of Iproniazid',
American Journal of Psychiatry
, 1956, Vol. 112, pp. 494–501; John Cade, ‘Lithium Salt in the Treatment of Psychotic Excitement',
Medical Journal of Australia
, 3 September 1949, pp. 349–51; L. H. Steinbach, ‘The Benzodiazipene Story',
Progress in Drug Research
, 1978, Vol. 22, pp. 229–66.

16
.
J. Delay and P. Deniker, ‘Neuroleptic Effects of Chlorpromazine
in Therapeutics of Neuropsychiatry',
International Record of Medicine and GP Clinics
, May 1955, pp. 318–26.

Richard Atkinson and Thomas Boulton,
The History of Anaesthesia
(Carnforth: Parthenon, 1987).

Jennifer Beinart,
A History of the Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford 1937–87
(Oxford: OUP, 1987).

David A. Davies,
Historical Vignettes of Modern Anaesthesia
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1968).

Tony Gould,
A Summer Plague: Polio and Its Survivors
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).

Bjorn Ibsen, ‘From Anaesthesia to Anaesthesiology: Personal Experiences in Copenhagen During the Past 25 Years',
Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica
, 1975, Supplement 61.

H. C. A. Lassen,
Management of Life-Threatening Poliomyelitis, Copenhagen 1952–56
(E & S Livingstone, 1956).

G. L. Wackers, ‘Modern Anaesthesiological Principles for Bulbar Polio: Manual IPPR in the 1952 Polio Epidemic in Copenhagen',
Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica
, 1994, Vol. 38, pp. 420–31.

1
.
H. C. A. Lassen, ‘A Preliminary Report on the 1952 Epidemic of Poliomyelitis in Copenhagen',
The Lancet
, 1953, Vol. 1, pp. 37–41.

2
.
F. W. Peabody, ‘A Clinical Study of Acute Poliomyelitis', quoted in Tony Gould,
A Summer Plague
.

3
.
Philip Drinker, ‘Prolonged Administration of Artificial Respiration',
The Lancet
, 1931, Vol. 1, pp. 1186–8.

4
.
H. C. A. Lassen,
Management of Life-Threatening Poliomyelitis
.

5
.
G. L. Wackers, ‘Modern Anaesthesiological Principles for Bulbar Polio'.

6
.
A full account of the events leading up to Dr Ibsen's proposal of mechanical ventilation of polio victims can be found in G. L. Wackers, ‘Innovation in Artificial Respiration: How the “Iron Lung” Became a Museum Piece',
Technologies of Modern Medicine
, ed. Ghislaine Lawrence (Science Museum, 1994).

7
.
W. Ritchie Russell,
Poliomyelitis
(Edward Arnold, 1952).

8
.
A. Crampton-Smith
et al.
, ‘Artifical Respiration by Intermittent Positive Pressure in Poliomyelitis and Other Diseases',
The Lancet
, 1954, Vol. 1, p. 939. See also interview with A. Crampton-Smith in Jennifer Beinart,
A History of the Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford 1937–87.

9
.
H. R. Griffith and J. E. Johnson, ‘The Use of Curare in General Anaesthesia',
Anaesthesiology
, 1942, Vol. 3, pp. 418–20.

10
.
T. C. Gray and J. Halton, ‘A Milestone in Anaesthesia?',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
, 1946, Vol. 39, pp. 400–10. See also Thomas Boulton, ‘T. Cecil Gray and the “Disintegration of the Nervous System”',
Survey of Anaesthesiology
, 1994, Vol. 38, pp. 239–52.

11
.
Thomas Boulton, personal communication, 1997.

12
.
H. Pontoppidan, ‘Respiratory Failure: Management and Outcome',
Major Issues in Critical Care Medicine
, ed. J. E. Parrillo (Philadelphia, PA: Williams & Wilkins, 1984), pp. 169–76.

Louis J. Acierno,
The History of Cardiology
(Carnforth: Parthenon,1994).

Richard J. Bing (ed.),
Cardiology: The Evolution of the Science and the Art
(Reading: Harwood Academic, 1992).

Raymond Hurt,
The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery from Early Times
(Carnforth: Parthenon, 1996).

Stephen L. Johnson,
The History of Cardiac Surgery, 1896–1955
(Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970).

Harris B. Shumacker,
The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery
(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992).

H. A. Snellen,
History and Perspectives of Cardiology
(Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1981).

1
.
L. Eloesser, ‘Milestones in Chest Surgery',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1970, Vol. 60, pp. 157–165.

2
.
Christian Barnard,
One Life
(Harrap, 1970).

3
.
H. B. Taussig and Alfred Blalock, ‘Surgical Treatment of Malformation of the Heart',
JAMA
, 1945, Vol. 128, p. 189.

4
.
Letters from Lord Brock to Mark Ravitch (September 1965), in Raymond Hurt,
The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery
.

5
.
R. C. Brock, ‘Pulmonary Valvulotomy for the Relief of Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis',
BMJ
, 12 June 1948, p. 1121.

6
.
T. H. Sellors, ‘Surgery of Pulmonary Stenosis',
The Lancet
, 1948,p. 998.

7
.
E. C. Cutler, ‘Cardiotomy and Valvulotomy for Mitral Stenosis',
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal
, 1923, Vol. 188, pp. 1023–7.

8
.
H. S. Souttar, ‘The Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis',
BMJ
, 1925, Vol. 2, pp. 603–7.

9
.
W. P. Cleland, ‘The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery in the United Kingdom',
Thorax
, 1983, Vol. 38, pp. 887–96.

10
.
D. E. Harken, ‘Techniques for Approaching and Removing Foreign Bodies from Chambers of the Heart',
Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
, 1946, Vol. 83, pp. 117–25.

11
.
D. E. Harken
et al.
, ‘The Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis',
NEJM
, 1948, Vol. 239, pp. 891–909.

12
.
D. E. Harken, ‘The Emergence of Cardiac Surgery',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 805–13.

13
.
J. H. Gibbon, ‘The Development of the Heart/Lung Apparatus',
American Journal of Surgery
, 1978, Vol. 135, pp. 608–19.

14
.
J. H. Gibbon, ‘Medicine's Living History',
Medical World News
, 1972, Vol. 13, p. 47.

15
.
Quoted in Stephen L. Johnson,
The History of Cardiac Surgery, 1896–1955
.

16
.
J. H. Gibbon, ‘Artificial Maintenance of the Circulation During Experimental Occlusion of the Pulmonary Artery',
Archives of Surgery
, 1937, Vol. 34, p. 1105. See also J. H. Gibbon, ‘The Maintenance of Life During Experimental Occlusion of the Pulmonary Artery Followed by Survival',
Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
, 1939, Vol. 69, p. 602.

17
.
John W. Kirklin, ‘The Middle 1950s and C. Walton Lillehei',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 822–4.

18
.
J. H. Gibbon, ‘Application of a Mechanical Heart and Lung Apparatus to Cardiac Surgery',
Minnesota Medicine
, 1954, Vol. 37,p. 171.

19
.
C. Walton Lillehei, ‘A Personalised History of Extra Corporeal Circulation',
Transactions of the American Society for Artificial Organs
, 1982, Vol. 28, pp. 5–16.

20
.
H. E. Warden, ‘C. Walton Lillehei: Pioneer Cardiac Surgeon',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 823–45.

21
.
Hugh McLeave,
The Risk Takers
(Frederick Miller, 1962).

22
.
C. Walter Lillehai, ‘The Results of Direct Vision Closure of Ventricular Septal Defects in Eight Patients by Means of Controlled Cross-circulation',
Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
, 1955, pp. 147–465. See also C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Direct Vision Intracardiac Surgical Correction of the Tetralogy of Fallot',
Annals of Surgery
, 1955, Vol. 142, pp. 418–45. (Lillehei subsequently reviewed the long-term results in ‘The First Open-heart Repairs: A Thirty-year Follow-up',
Annals of Thoracic Surgery
, 1986, Vol. 41, pp. 4–21.)

23
.
Richard A. DeWall
et al.
, ‘Simple Expendable Artificial Oxygenator for Open-heart Surgery',
Surgical Clinics of North America
, 1956, Vol. 36, pp. 1025–34.

24
.
C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Cardio-pulmonary Bypass in Surgical Treatment of Congenital Acquired Cardiac Disease: Use in 305 Patients',
AMA Archives of Surgery
, 1957, Vol. 75, pp. 928–45. See also C. Walton Lillehei, ‘Direct Vision Intracardiac Surgery in Man Using a Simple Disposal Artificial Oxygenator',
Diseases of the Chest
, 1956, Vol. 29, p. 128; John W. Kirklin
et al.
, ‘Intracardiac Surgery With the Aid of a Mechanical Pump/Oxygenator System (Gibbon Type), Report of 8 Cases',
PSMMC
, 1955, Vol. 30, pp. 201–6; John W. Kirklin
et al.
, ‘Surgical Treatment for the Tetralogy of Fallot',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1959, Vol. 37, pp. 22–51.

25
.
John W. Kirklin, ‘The Middle 1950s and C. Walton Lillehei',
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
, 1989, Vol. 98, pp. 822–4.

26
.
Harris B. Shumacker,
The Evolution of Cardiac Surgery
.

27
.
Donald Longmore,
Towards Safer Cardiac Surgery
(Lancaster: MTP Press, 1981).