Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (87 page)

2

Hitchcock, pp. 92—7.

3

Snyder, pp. 186—7; Janics, pp. 136—9.

PART IV – CIVIL WAR

1

Eisenhower, p. 521.

CHAPTER 22 — WARS WITHIN WARS

1

Interview with former partisan ‘G.V.’, in Alessandrini, p. 68. For similar instances see Pavone, pp. 465—6.

2

See Pavone, who pioneered this view,
passim.

3

See, for example, the treatment of Trotskyist leaders Joseph Pastor and Jacques Méker, in Bourdrel, pp. 216—27.

4

See Pike, p. 73.

5

President Truman’s famous ‘Truman Doctrine’ speech, quoted in Kennan, p. 320.

CHAPTER 23 — POLITICAL VIOLENCE IN FRANCE AND ITALY

1

Ginsborg, p. 89.

2

Ammendolia, pp. 22—8.

3

Ginsborg, p. 88.

4

Only in Czechoslovakia did the Communists do better in free elections, achieving 38 per cent of the vote in 1946; see Rioux, p. 110; Ginsborg, p. 82; Judt, pp. 79, 88; Hodgson, p. 212.

5

Judt, p. 88.

6

Party political broadcast, 4 June 1945, quoted in Cannadine, pp. 271—7.

7

Letter, Alcide De Gasperi to Luigi Sturzo, April 1946, in De Gasperi, vol. II, p. 44.

8

Telegram from State Dept to Rome Embassy, 16 May 1945, quoted in Ellwood, pp. 184—5.

9

Marx and Engels, p. 120.

10

Philip Morgan, p. 213; Dondi, pp. 175—6.

11

Thorez quoted in Rioux, p. 55; Novick, pp. 74—5.

12

Quoted in Dondi, p. 175.

13

See Novick, p. 76; Bourdrel, pp. 679—84.

14

Bourdrel, pp. 486—9.

15

Ibid., pp. 489—90.

16

Veyret, p. 194.

17

Report in telegram, Kirk to State Department, 28 May 1945, quoted in Ellwood, p. 186.

18

Dondi, pp. 168, 176.

19

Ibid., p. 157.

20

L‘Unità,
24 February 1953; see also Alessandrini, pp. 65—6; Philip Morgan, p. 211; and Pansa, p. 258.

21

Bertaux, pp. 63—6; Bourdrel, p. 571.

22

Aron, p. 564.

23

Ibid.

24

L’Aube
, 16 November 1950, quoted in Bourdrel, p. 543.

25

. See, for example, the treatment of various priests in Toulouse and Perpignan in Bourdrel, pp. 546—7, 559—60, 573.

26

See, for example, the killing of the priest Umberto Pessina in Emilia-Romagna on 18 June 1946: Dondi, pp. 176—7.

27

Bertaux, pp. 22—4.

28

Bourdrel, pp. 523—4.

29

Dondi, pp. 168—9.

30

Ibid., pp. 174—7.

31

See, for example, Storchi, and Crainz, passim. See also Piscitelli, pp. 169—70.

32

Bertaux, pp. 109—10.

33

American intelligence report by AFHQ Operations Division, quoted in Ellwood, p. 187.

34

Jonathan Dunnage, ‘Policing and Politics in the Southern Italian Community, 1943—1948’, in Dunnage, pp. 34—40.

35

Sarah Morgan, pp. 148, 158.

36

L‘Umanità,
29 March 1947; Ambassador Dunn to Secretary of State, 1 April 1947,
FRUS,
1947, vol. III, p. 878.

37

Rioux, pp. 123—5.

38

Ambassador Caffery to Secretary of State, 19 February 1947, FRUS, 1947, vol. III, p. 691.

39

Acheson quoted in Rioux, p. 113.

40

Ambassador Dunn to Secretary of State, 7 May 1947 and 18 June 1947,
FRUS,
1947, vol. III, pp. 900, 924.

41

FRUS,
1948, vol. III, pp. 853—4.

42

Rioux, pp. 129—30.

43

‘Blood on the Cobblestones’,
Time
magazine, 26 July 1948.

44

Alessandrini, p. 64; Dondi, p. 180.

45

Psychological Warfare Bureau report, 5 July 1945, quoted in Ellwood, p. 193.

46

Juan Carlos Martinez Oliva, ‘The Italian Stabilization of 1947: Domestic and International Factors’ (Institute of European Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 14 May 2007), pp. 18—30; Rioux, p. 114.

47

Quoted in Ellwood, p. 190.

48

Ginsborg, pp. 91—2.

49

Ibid., p. 94.

50

Ibid., p. 96.

51

Ammendolia, p. 39.

52

Ibid., pp. 45—9.

CHAPTER 24 — THE GREEK CIVIL WAR

1

For Moscow conference see Dallas, pp. 285—94.

2

EAM stands for Ethniko Apeleftherotiko Metopo; ELAS for Ethnikos Laikos Apeleftherotikos Stratos.

3

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 140—42.

4

Michael S. Macrakis, ‘Russian Mission on the Mountains of Greece, Summer 1944 (A View from the Ranks)’,
Journal of Contemporary History,
vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 387—408; Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 296, 359—60.

5

Quoted in Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 295—6.

6

TNA: PRO WO 204/8832, SACMED to Scobie, 15 November 1944. See also Churchill to Eden, 7 November 1944, TNA: PRO FO 371/43695 ; Alexander, p. 66.

7

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 364, 413 fn. 24.

8

Iatrides,
Ambassador MacVeagh Reports,
p. 660.

9

Quoted in Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
p. 362.

10

Ibid., p. 352.

11

TNA: PRO PREM 3 212/11, Churchill’s order to Scobie, 5 December 1944: see Clogg, p. 187.

12

TNA: PRO WO 170/4049, ‘Report on Visit to Greek Red Cross EA.P., Platia Kastalia, Kypseli, 12 Dec 1944’; report by Ambassador Lincoln MacVeagh, 6 December 1944 in Iatrides,
Ambassador MacVeagh Reports,
p. 658.

13

See the many reports of ELAS hostages in TNA: PRO FO 996/1. See also WO 204/8301, ‘Account of military and political events in Western Greece during the independent mission of 11 Ind Inf Bde GP’, esp. appendix C.10; WO 204/9380, ‘Report by Captain WE Newton on a visit to Kokkenia on 12th January 1945’.

14

For an English translation of the Varkiza Agreement see Richter, pp. 561—4; and Woodhouse, pp. 308—10.

15

See Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 271, 279—84.

16

Woodhouse, p. 147.

17

Ibid., pp. 84—6; Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp
.
318, 325. EKKA stands for Ethniki Kai Koinoniki Apeleftherosi.

18

See Hagen Fleischer, ‘Contacts between German Occupation Authorities and the Major Greek Resistance Organizations’, in Iatrides,
Greece in the
1940s, pp. 54—6; and Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 142, 329—30. EDES stands for Ethnikos Dimokratikos Ellinikos Syndesmos.

19

EAM member Konstantinos G. Karsaros, quoted in Kalyvas, p. 171.

20

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
p. 290.

21

bid., pp. 318—20.

22

John Sakkas, ‘The Civil War in Evrytania’, in Mazower,
After the War Was Over,
p. 194.

23

Kalyvas, pp. 161—2.

24

Ibid., pp. 157, 159.

25

Ibid., pp. 148, 163.

26

Odigitis,
8 February 1944, quoted in Kalyvas, p. 157.

27

Kalyvas, pp. 153, 159.

28

Ibid., p. 134.

29

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
p. 327.

30

Kalyvas, p. 151.

31

TNA: PRO HS 5/698 ‘General Report’, pp. 8—9.

32

EASAD stands for Ethnikos Agrotikos Syndesmos Antikommounistikis Draseos.

33

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
pp. 334-9.

34

TNA: PRO FO 188/438, ‘Summary of a Letter dated Athens 22nd November 1944 from Mr Justice Sandström, Chairman of the Greek Relief Commission to the Supervisory Board of the Swedish Red Cross’.

35

The following example from Douka is dissected in greater detail by Kalyvas, pp. 171—5.

36

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
p. 373.

37

See report of Charles F. Edson, to Lincoln MacVeagh, 29 March 1945, quoted in Clogg, p. 192.

38

Voglis, p. 75.

39

See reports by Charles F. Edson to Lincoln MacVeagh, 29 March and 4 July 1945, quoted in Clogg, pp. 192, 196; and Woodhouse report quoted in Richter, pp. 148—50.

40

Democratic Army of Greece radio proclamation to the Greek people, 24 December 1947, quoted in Clogg, p. 205.

41

See report by Charles F. Edson to Lincoln MacVeagh, 4 July 1945, quoted in Clogg, pp. 195—6.

42

See Mark Mazower’s introduction in Mazower,
After the War Was Over,
p. 11.

43

See ibid., p. 7.

44

Eleni Haidia, ‘The Punishment of Collaborators in Northern Greece, 1945-1946’, ibid., p. 54.

45

According to British estimates, 3,033 people were executed as sentenced by extraordinary courts martial between 1946 and 1949, and 378 as sentenced by civil courts, making a total of 3,411; see TNA: PRO FO 371/87668 RG10113/11, Athens to Foreign Office, 6 April 1950.

46

P. Papastratis, ‘The Purge of the Greek Civil Service on the Eve of the Civil War’, in Baerentzen et al., p. 46. See also Mark Mazower, ‘Three Forms of Political Justice, Greece 1944—1945’, in Mazower,
After the War Was Over,
pp. 37—8.

47

TNA: PRO FO 371/87668, RG 10113/28. Voglis appears to misquote these figures, p. 75.

48

Mazower,
Inside Hitler’s Greece,
p. 376.

49

Ibid.

50

See George F. Kennan’s statement to the War College, 28 March 1947, Kennan, pp. 318-20.

51

Truman, p. 129.

52

George Marshall’s speech at Harvard, 5 June 1947, quoted ibid., p. 138. See also Rioux, p. 114.

53

See Milward,
Reconstruction,
pp. 5, 56-61.

54

Judt, p. 143. For descriptions of Communist agitation in France and Italy, see Rioux, pp. 129—30; ‘Blood on the Cobblestones’,
Time
magazine, 26 July 1948;
FRUS,
1948, vol. III (Western Europe), pp. 853-4.

CHAPTER 25 – CUCKOO IN THE NEST: COMMUNISM IN ROMANIA

1

Cedric Salter, interview with King Michael of Romania,
Daily Express,
23 November 1944. For more detailed descriptions of Michael’s coup d’état see
New York Times,
27 August 1944, p. 12; Deletant, pp. 46-50; Ionescu, pp. 83-4.

2

Declaration of the new Romanian government, 23 August 1944,
FRUS,
1944, vol. IV, p. 191.

3

Deletant, pp. 36—7, 49.

4

For the complete text of the Romanian Armistice see TNA: PRO WO 201/1602.

5

Ionescu, p. 88; Hitchins, pp. 502—5.

6

Deletant, p. 59.

7

Daily Express,
23 November 1944.

8

Ibid. and TNA: PRO WO 201/1602, digest of OSS reports sent from Foreign Office to Minister Resident, Cairo, 16 September 1944.

9

Ionescu, p. 98; Deletant, p. 57.

10

Ionescu, p. 103; Deletant, pp. 56-9.

11

Deletant, pp. 59—60. For Penescu’s version of events see James Marjoribanks’ minute to the Foreign Office on 2 December 1944, TNA: PRO FO 371/48547.

12

The truce lasted just three weeks: see the report by the Chief of Polish Intelligence, 1 February 1945, reproduced in Giurescu, doc. 1, pp. 134-44.

13

Deletant, pp. 61—3; see in particular the quotation of Georgescu’s telegram to regional prefects ‘not to carry out orders … given by General R
descu, who has proved himself by his dictatorial action to be the enemy of our people’.