Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (83 page)

14

Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
p. 77.

15

TNA: PRO FO 371/49139, Duff Cooper to Anthony Eden, 11 January 1945.

16

Le Peuple,
5 September 1944, ‘Une proclamation des partis …’.

17

Huyse, p. 161; Judt, p. 46; Rioux, p. 34, Derry, p. 405. Although the death penalty was still a part of the civil criminal code in Norway in 1902, and in Denmark as late as 1930, there had been no executions in either country since the nineteenth century: see Dahl, pp. 152—3; and Nøkelby, p. 319.

18

See the statistics for reported homicides in Dondi, pp. 97, 102.

19

TNA: PRO WO 106/3965A, memo from Sir Noel Charles to Foreign Office, 11 May 1945. More recent Italian studies suggest figures of 1,322 for Turin and 1,325 in Milan; see Pansa, pp. 55, 117.

20

Quoted in Philip Morgan, p. 218.

21

Testimony of Benito Puiatti and Eraldo Franza, quoted in Pavone, pp. 508, 768 fn. 11.

22

Judt, p. 42.

23

For more specific figures, and a discussion of how they were arrived at, see Rioux, p. 32, Rousso, pp. 93—7, 119, and Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
pp. 202—8.

24

For figures of 12—15,000 postwar killings, see Pavone, p. 511; and Philip Morgan, p. 167. For figures of up to 20,000, see Pansa, p. 371. For discussion of figures, see Pansa, pp. 365—72, and Philip Morgan, pp. 216—18.

25

Philip Morgan, p. 218.

26

Roberto Battaglia letter to the police chief of La Spezia, quoted in Pavone, p. 509.

27

Philip Morgan, pp. 85, 205; Jonathan Dunnage, ‘Policing and Politics in the Southern Italian Community, 1943—1948’, in Dunnage, pp. 34—9; Woller, pp. 90—91.

28

For a summary of the Italian failure to reform the court system see Achille Battaglia,
passim;
and Modona, pp. 48—58; see also Claudio Pavone, ‘The General Problem of the Continuity of the State and the Legacy of Fascism’, in Dunnage, p. 18.

29

Modona, pp. 53—4.

30

Pansa, p. 369. Judt, pp. 47—8, puts the figure at no more than fifty executions.

31

Dondi, pp. 142—4; Pansa, pp. 316—26.

32

Testimonies of Valentino Bortoloso and Pierina Penezzato, interviewed by Sarah Morgan, pp. 154—5.

33

Rousso, p. 103.

34

For percentages and statistics see ibid., pp. 106—8. For slightly different numbers see Judt, p. 46; Rioux, p. 34.

35

Conway,p. 134; Huyse, pp. 161—2.

36

Conway, pp. 134, 140, 148; Huyse, pp. 161—2.

37

TNA: PRO FO 371/47307, British Embassy in Copenhagen to Foreign Office, 3 August 1945.

38

Le Monde,
13 January 1945; Farge, pp. 243—50; Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
pp. 76—7.

39

Nøkelby, pp. 319—20; Derry, pp. 405—6; Judt, p. 45.

40

MacDonogh, pp. 359—61; Judt, p. 52.

41

Population figures taken from Maddison, pp. 38—9. Population of the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia) estimated from Maddison, p. 96 and Czech census data reproduced in Gyurgyík, pp. 38—9. Other data adapted as follows: Denmark and Norway: Dahl, p. 148. Belgium and Holland: Huyse, p. 161. France: Rousso, pp. 108, 110, 119—20, includes the 767 executions carried out by the Courts of Justice and the 769 carried out by military tribunals. Italy: Judt, pp. 47—8, Pansa, p. 369; figures for milder sanctions unknown. Czech lands: Frommer, pp. 91, 220, 243. Austria: MacDonogh, pp. 359—61; and Judt, p. 52.

42

Frommer, p. 38; Huyse, pp. 165—6.

43

Judt, p. 51; Huyse, pp. 163, 166—8; Frommer, pp. 272—7.

44

For these and other legal problems, see Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
p. 209; Huyse, pp. 159—69; Judt, pp. 44—5; Nøkelby, pp. 320—21.

45

TNA: PRO FO 371/48994, Sir H. Knatchbull-Hugessen to Churchill, 2 July 1945.

46

Huyse, p. 163.

47

See Tony Judt’s seminal essay, ‘The Past is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe’, in Deák et al., pp. 296, 298.

48

MacDonogh, pp. 348—57; Judt, pp. 53—61; Botting, pp. 315—53.

49

Judt, p. 61.

50

See, for example, Fabienne Frayssinet, ‘Quatre saisons dans les geôles de la IV
^e
République’,
Écrits de Paris,
July 1949, pp. 114—25; and the story of the rape and torture of a forty-three-year-old woman in Villedieu-sur-Indre, in
La Gerbaude,
1951, issue 2, quoted in Aron, p. 572. Compare these to the more dispassionate stories produced by official investigations in the Indre, in La Chauvinerie internment camp at Poitiers and the Drancy internment camp in Paris: Virgili, pp. 139—40; and Bourdrel, pp. 109—15, 509—10.

51

For a discussion of all the conflicting figures see Rioux, p. 32; Rousso, pp. 93—7, 119; Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
pp. 202—8.

52

See, for example, Mungone, p. x. For discussion of such figures, see Pansa, pp. 365—72; Philip Morgan, pp. 216—18.

53

Philip Morgan, pp. 166—7.

54

See note 24 above.

55

Pansa, p. x.

CHAPTER 14 — REVENGE ON WOMEN AND CHILDREN

1

Virgili, p. 173.

2

Quoted ibid., p. 26.

3

Police reports concerning persons arrested and accused of collaboration, interned at Jayat camp at Charente, Archives Nationales, Paris, 72 AJ 108 (AVIII); Virgili, p. 26; Warring, ‘War, Cultural Loyalty and Gender’, p. 46.

4

Kåre Olsen, ‘Under the Care of the Lebensborn’, p. 24.

5

For statistics on babies born to German fathers, see notes 36—40 below.

6

For surveys of attitudes of Danish women towards Germans, see Lulu Ann Hansen, ‘“Youth Off the Rails”: Teenage Girls and German Soldiers -A Case Study in Occupied Denmark, 1940—1945’, in Herzog, p. 151. See also Warring, ‘War, Cultural Loyalty and Gender’, pp. 44—5.

7

Virgili, p. 238.

8

Quoted ibid., p. 239.

9

Saint-Exupéry, p. 145.

10

Speech on the BBC, 8 November 1942, quoted in de Gaulle, p. 393; Christmas speech to the French people, 24 December 1943, p. 553; speech to Consultative Assembly, Algiers, 18 March 1944, p. 560.

11

Speech to Consultative Assembly, Algiers, 18 March 1944, quoted in de Gaulle, p. 562.

12

See Virgili, p. 80.

13

Derek L. Henry, IWM Docs 06/126/1, typescript account, pp. 48, 52; Captain Michael Bendix, IWM Docs 98/3/1, typescript account, p. 30.

14

Major J.A. S. Neave, IWM Docs 98/23/1, typescript diary, entry for 3 September 1944, P. 157.

15

Female resident of Bonnières by the Seine, quoted by Major A. J. Forrest, 12 September 1944; see IWM Docs 91/13/1, typescript memoir, ch. 10, p. 3.

16

Bohec, p. 186.

17

Weitz, pp. 149, 170.

18

Major A. J. Forrest, IWM Docs 91/13/1, typescript memoir, ch. 8, p. 11.

19

Lt Richard W. Holborow, IWM Docs 07/23/1, typescript memoir, pp. 135—6.

20

La Marseillaise,
3 September 1944, quoted in Virgili, p. 191.

21

Leaflet from the Comité Départemental de la Libération, Troyes, quoted in Virgili, p. 191.

22

Virgili, p. 189.

23

Warring,
Tyskerpiger,
pp. 156—73; Diederichs, pp. 157—8.

24

Bunting, pp. 235, 258—9.

25

As quoted in Dondi, p. 126. A more literal translation would be: ‘And you beautiful young girls/ who go with fascists/ your beautiful tresses/ will soon be shaved.’

26

Novick,
Resistance versus Vichy,
pp. 69, 78.

27

Rousso, p. 98. According to Diederichs, head shaving took place in at least one Dutch village in a deliberate and coordinated attempt to stave off a general ‘day of reckoning’, p. 157.

28

Virgili claims that the supposed channelling of violence is inconclusive, but agrees that it provided a focus for communal unity, pp. 93—4, 172.

29

Virgili, pp. 65, 94. See also the many examples in Brossat,
passim.

30

See, for example, the photographs in Warring,
Tyskerpiger,
pp. 100—101, 161.

31

Virgili, p. 192.

32

Rousso, p. 98. Also variously reported as ‘My heart is France’s, but my body is mine’, Arletty obituary,
Daily Telegraph,
27 July 1992; and ‘My heart is French, but my arse is international’ [‘Mon coeur est français mais mon cul est international’] according to Buisson, p. 9.

33

Virgili, p. 52.

34

Anthony Eden interview in Marcel Ophüls’s film documentary
Le Chagrin et la Pitié,
part II: ‘Le Choix’.

35

Quoted in Virgili, p. 239.

36

Warring,
Tyskerpiger,
p. 146.

37

For the higher Dutch figure see Johr, p. 71; Diederichs, p. 153, puts the figure at only 16,000.

38

For Norwegian figures see Kåre Olsen,
Schicksal Lebensborn,
p. 7. Olsen believes the true figure to be between 10,000 and 12,000; however, only 8,000 of these children were officially registered by the German Lebensborn organization during the war, and the figure of 9,000 was the standard one used by the Norwegian War Child Committee.

39

Johr gives the range 85,000 to 100,000, p. 71. The figure of 85,000 appears to come from a German document dated 15 October 1943: later estimates put the figure as high as 200,000 —see Buisson, pp. 116—17; Roberts, p. 84.

40

Drolshagen, p. 9.

41

See Diederichs, p. 157.

42

Lufotposten,
19 May 1945, quoted and translated in Ericsson and Ellingsen, p. 94.

43

For a description of the work of this commission see Kåre Olsen, ‘Under the Care of the Lebensborn’, pp. 307—19.

44

For a description of the 2001 research programme and its findings, see Ericsson and Ellingsen, pp. 93—111.

45

Kare Olsen, ‘Under the Care of the Lebensborn’, p. 26.

46

Borgersrud, pp. 71—2.

47

Ibid. There are no accurate figures relating to marriages between Germans and Norwegian girls during the war, but Kåre Olsen estimates the number at around 3,000: see ‘Under the Care of the Lebensborn’, p. 26.

48

Borgersrud, p. 87.

49

Doctor’s statement in 1990, quoted in Kåre Olsen, ‘Under the Care of the Lebensborn’, p. 29.

50

For these, and many other anecdotes, see Ericsson and Ellingsen, pp. 93—111.

51

Drolshagen, p. 101.

52

Borgersrud, p. 85.

53

Ericsson and Ellingsen, p. 109.

54

Ibid., pp. 105—6.

55

Drolshagen, p. 96.

56

Arne Øland, ‘Silences, Public and Private’, in Ericsson and Simonsen, p. 60.

57

Ibid.

58

Drolshagen, p. 118.

59

Ibid., p. 137.

CHAPTER 15 — THE PURPOSE OF VENGEANCE

1

Berek Obuchowski interview, IWM Sound, 9203, reel 5.

2

Dr Zalman Grinberg, quoted in Gilbert,
The Day the War Ended,
pp. 391—2.

3

See ‘Attacks on Jews soar since Lebanon’,
The Times,
2 September 2006; and ‘Anti-Semitic Attacks Hit Record High Following Lebanon War’,
Guardian,
2 February 2007.

4

Laurel Cohen-Pfister, ‘Rape, War and Outrage: Changing Perceptions on German Victimhood in the Period of Post-unification’, in Cohen-Pfister and Wienroeder-Skinner, pp. 321—5.

PART III — ETHNIC CLEANSING

1

Stalin’s advice to Poland’s postwar leader Władysław Gomułka on how to rid Poland of Germans, quoted in Naimark,
Fires of Hatred,
p. 109.

CHAPTER 16 — WARTIME CHOICES

1

Burleigh,
Third Reich,
pp. 449—50.

CHAPTER 17 – THE JEWISH FLIGHT

1

Roman Halter, letter to Martin Gilbert in
The Boys,
pp. 266—8. See also IWM Sound, 17183, reel 10.

2

Blom et al., p. 337.

3

Lewkowicz, p. 260.

4

Hondius, p. 104.

5

Report in
Neue Welt,
no. 1, quoted in Gringauz, ‘Our New German Policy’, p. 512.

6

Abba Kovner quoted in Bauer, p. 36; Gringauz, ‘Jewish Destiny’, p. 504.

7

Primo Levi, p. 373.

8

Hondius, pp. 55, 77.

9

Ibid., pp. 78—82.

10

Ibid., p. 80.

11

Fabio Levi, p. 26.

12

See, for example, Beevor and Cooper, p. 172; Hitchcock, pp. 267—72; Rioux, pp. 13—16.

13

Hondius, pp. 76, 79—80, 93—5.