Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (84 page)

14

F. C. Brasz, ‘After the Second World War: From “Jewish Church” to Cultural Minority’, in Blom et al., p. 337.

15

Rita Koopman, Ab Caransa, Gerhard Durlacher and Mrs ’t Hoen quoted in Hondius, p. 100.

16

Quoted ibid.

17

Hitchcock, pp. 271—2.

18

Newspaper story quoted in Pelle, pp. 228—9.

19

Ethel Landerman testimony quoted in Shephard,
Long Road Home,
p. 393.

20

Quoted in Kenez, p. 158.

21

Hondius, pp. 77—8.

22

Myant, p. 103; Pelle, 151; Jean Ancel, ‘The Seizure of Jewish Property in Romania’, in United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, pp. 43—55.

23

Gross, p. 44.

24

See, for example, Kovaly, pp. 56—7; Dean, p. 357; Gross, pp. 39—51; Lewkowicz, p. 260; Gilbert,
The Boys,
pp. 268, 274.

25

For a detailed analysis of the events at Kunmadaras see Pelle, pp. 151—68.

26

Eszter Toth Kabai interview in
Haladás,
quoted ibid., p. 161.

27

Pelle, pp. 157—60.

28

Ibid., p. 160.

29

Kenez, pp. 159—60; Jewish historians claim that there were three deaths, and eighteen injured: see Éva Vörös, ‘Kunmadaras Újabb adatok a pogrom történetéhez’,
Múlt és jöv
,
no. 4 (1994).

30

Pelle, pp. 161, 162.

31

Ibid., p. 173.

32

Fabio Levi, pp. 28—9.

33

Gross, pp. 47—51.

34

Siklos, p. 1.

35

Quoted in Eby, p. 287.

36

In Hungary, for example, not only was the entire top layer of the Communist hierarchy Jewish, but in 1945 around 14 per cent of ordinary members were too, as compared with between 1 and 2 per cent of the population as a whole. See Kenez, p. 156.

37

Pelle, p. 206.

38

Ibid., p. 160.

39

Kenez, pp. 159—61; Pelle, pp. 212—30.

40

Letter, Mór Reinchardt to the president of the Hungarian Jewish Bureau, 5 August 1946, quoted in Pelle, pp. 166—7.

41

Ben Helfgott, personal interview, 19 May 2008.

42

Gross, p. 35.

43

Bauer, p. 15; Gross, p. 36.

44

Gross, pp. 74—5.

45

Ibid., p. 82.

46

The following description is based on Gross’s digest of Polish documentary evidence about the massacre, pp. 81—117.

47

Quoted ibid., p. 89.

48

Ibid., pp. 93, 113.

49

Bauer, p. 210; Gross, p. 138.

50

Gross, p. 98. For a more sympathetic view of Communist action on the day, see Bauer, pp. 206—11. For a discussion of opposing views on responsibility for the pogrom, see Kochavi, p. 175.

51

Gilbert,
The Boys,
p. 275.

52

Ibid., p. 271.

53

Report, Joseph Levine to Moses Leavitt, 24 October 1945, quoted in Hitchcock, p. 334.

54

Kochavi, pp. 173, 227—8; Gross, p. 218.

55

Kochavi, pp. 175, 187; Bauer, pp. 216—23; Shephard,
Long Road Home,
pp. 186—9, 235—6.

56

Bauer, pp. 211—12. Other authors have different figures, based on different criteria, but all show the same pattern of a massive increase in July and August; see, for example, Gross, p. 43.

57

Gross, p. 43; Bauer, pp. 295, 298; Kochavi, p. 185.

58

Bauer, pp. 318—20. For similar statistics based on different time periods, see Pra
mowska, p. 176; and Kochavi, p. 227. Proudfoot’s Table 35 has slightly higher figures, based on immigration statistics to Israel.

59

Shephard,
Long Road Home,
pp. 190—99; Bauer, p. 319.

60

Bauer, pp. 319—21.

61

British Foreign Office to Washington, 5 October 1945, TNA: PRO FO 1049/81. Bevin quoted in Shephard,
Long Road Home,
p. 191.

62

Walid Khalidi, quoted in Shephard,
Long Road Home,
p. 356.

CHAPTER 18 – THE ETHNIC CLEANSING OF POLAND AND UKRAINE

1

Anonymous witness quoted in Dushnyck, pp. 15—16. See also Misiło,
Repatriacja czy deportacja?,
vol. II, pp. 24, 31, 39, 43; and Snyder, p. 194.

2

Anonymous witness quoted in Dushnyck, pp. 16—17.

3

Testimony of 2nd Lieutenant Bronisław Kuzma quoted in Dushnyck, p. 21.

4

Snyder, p. 194. Seventy names are listed by Dushnyck, but some survived their wounds: see pp. 18, 19, 31—2.

5

Snyder, pp. 182—7.

6

See, for example, ibid., esp. pp. 177,200. Gross makes the same point about postwar anti-Semitism, pp. 260—61.

7

For the complicated divisions between the followers of Stepan Bandera (OUN-B) and followers of Andrii Melnyk (OUN-M), see Snyder, pp. 164—8; Yekelchyk, pp. 127—8, 141—4.

8

Snyder, pp. 158—62.

9

Testimony of Jan Szkolniaki, AWK II/2091.

10

Testimony of Mirosław Ilnicki, AWK 11/3327.

11

Piotrowski, p. 89.

12

Testimony of Mieczysława Woskresi
ska, AWK II/2215/p.

13

See, for example, testimonies in AWK: II/36, II/594, II/737,II/953, II/1144, II/1146,II/2.099, II/2110, II/2353, II/2352, II/2451,II/2650, II/2667. For German, Soviet and Polish reports, see Snyder, pp. 169—70 and related endnotes.

14

Kliachkivs’kyi and Stel‘mashchuk quoted in Statiev, p. 86.

15

See, for example, the massacres of Ukrainians in Piskorowice, Pawlokoma and Wierzchowiny by Polish militias: Misiło,
Akcja ‘Wisła’,
p. 13; Piotrowski, p. 93; Statiev, p. 87.

16

Lotnik, pp. 65-6.

17

Testimony of Bronisław Kuzma, quoted in Dushnyck, p. 21.

18

Snyder, p. 194.

19

Statiev, pp. 87—8; Snyder, p. 205. See also Siemaszko and Siemaszko, vol. II, pp. 1038, 1056—7; and Siemaszko, p. 94. For a breakdown of other, wildly differing estimates, see Piotrowski, pp. 90—91.

20

See, for example, Siemaszko and Siemaszko, esp. Professor Ryszard Szawlowski’s introduction, pp. 14—20, 1095—1102. See also Tsaruk’s questioning of their figures, pp. 15—26.

21

Rees,
Behind Closed Doors,
pp. 222,
236.

22

Lane, p. 66.

23

Rees,
Behind Closed Doors,
p. 236; and Lane, pp. 55—88.

24

Lane, pp. 84—8.

25

House of Commons debate, 1 March 1945, Hansard, Series 5, vol. 408, col. 1625.

26

Conquest, pp. 133—4.

27

See Uehling, esp. pp. 79—107.

28

Snyder, pp. 182—7.

29

Statiev, p. 182. Snyder, p. 187. Yekelchyk, p. 147, gives a higher figure of 810,415 expelled from Ukraine.

30

Testimony of Maria Józefowska, AWK II/1999.

31

Statiev, p. 182; Snyder, p. 194; Yekelchyk, p. 147.

32

Testimony of Henryk Jan Mielcarek, AWK II/3332.

33

Statiev, p. 182. See also, for example, the eyewitness testimony of Anna Klimasz and Rozalia Najduch, AWK I/344.

34

Snyder, p. 196; Miroszewski, p. 11.

35

Wacław Kossowski, quoted in Snyder, p. 196.

36

Misiło,
Akcja ‘Wisła’,
doc. 42: Radkierwicz and
ymierski memo dated 16 April 1947, outlining ‘Special action “East”’, p. 93.

37

Misiło,
Akcja ‘Wisła’ ,
doc. 44, pp. 98—9: Office of State Security document dated 17 April 1947. Ryszard Szawłowski denies any kind of ethnic cleansing involved in Operation Vistula: see his introduction to Siemaszko and Siemaszko, pp. 15, 1096.

38

Rozalia Najduch, interview, 1990, AWK I/344.

39

Anna Klimasz and Rozalia Najduch interview, 1990, AWK 1/344.

40

Olga Zdanowicz, manuscript, AWK II/2280/p.

41

Anna Szewczyk, Teodor Szewczyk and Mikołaj Sokacz interview, 1990, AWK I/790.

42

Miroszewski, pp. 19—22.

43

Olga Zdanowicz, manuscript, AWK II/2280/p. Those being sent to Jaworzno also stopped at Auschwitz: see Miroszewski, p. 16.

44

See the testimony of former repatriation official Leon Debowski, AWK II/457.

45

. Miroszewski, p. 17.

46

Anna Szewczyk, Teodor Szewczyk and Mikolaj Sokacz interview, AWK I/790.

47

According to Anna Klimasz, AWK I/344. See also Karolina Hrycaj, typescript, AWK II/3404.

48

For an excellent analysis of how an idealized concept of ‘home’ becomes almost sacred to displaced people, see Uehling, esp. ch. 7.

49

Olga Zdanowicz, manuscript, AWK II/2280/p.

CHAPTER 19 — THE EXPULSION OF THE GERMANS

1

De Zayas,
Nemesis,
p. 42

2

Parliamentary debate, 23 February 1944, Hansard, Series 5, vol. 397, col. 937.

3

Schieder, vol. I:
Oder-Neisse,
p. 62.

4

Rees,
Behind Closed Doors,
p. 338.

5

Schieder, vol. I:
Oder-Neisse,
p. 62.

6

Lane, p. 185.

7