The New Penguin History of the World (228 page)

Russia and,
615
,
620

navy and,
662

consults astrologer,
1030

Elizabeth (1709–62), tsarina of Russia (1741–62),
623

enclosure, agricultural,
554
,
562
,
705

energy

human,
91
,
316

steam, used by Hero,
220

animal,
516

water,
516

in agriculture,
706

for railways and shipping,
709
,
710
,
823

hydro-electric schemes,
950

ecological problem,
1006

watchful use,
1024
–5

acceleration of consumption,
1070

see also
electricity; oil

Engels, Frederick (1820–95), German socialist,
713
–14

England, English

(i) Anglo-Saxon; regeneration under Alfred,
409
–10; Norman administration,
506

(ii) early modern; trade with Persia,
392
; first trade posts in India,
439
–40,
442
,
637
; Papacy and,
494
,
499
,
501
; wars with France,
507
–8; royal power,
511
–12; peasant rebellions,
518
; trade growth,
561
,
556
–7,
558
; class structure,
563
–5,
566
; social changes,
563
–4; Tudor administrative techniques,
572
–3,
579
–80,
600
; Church in,
580
; Crown and parliament,
587
–9,
590
–1,
616
,
618
; wars with Spain,
603
–4; Dutch and,
605
,
607
,
659
–60,
661
–2; colonization in N. America,
650
–3

see also
Britain; United Kingdom

Enki, Sumerian god,
55

Enlightenment

definition,
686
–7

ideas and attitudes,
687
–94,
876

Enlil, Sumerian god,
55
,
64

environmental concern and change,
1023
–6,
1184
–5

Epicurus (341–270
BC
), Epicurean school of philosophy,
222
,
251

Erasmus, Desiderius (
c.
1466–1536), Christian humanist scholar,
539
–40,
545
,
575
,
577

Eratosthenes (276–194
BC
), Greek scientist,
220
,
223

Eridu, Sumerian settlement,
50
–1

Erigena, Johannes Scotus (
c.
815–77), Irish philosopher,
536

Eskimoes,
36
,
407
,
482
–3,
810

Estonia,
1155

Ethiopia

early kingdom,
478
,
481

Portuguese and,
633

retained independence,
792
,
822
,
825
,
1075

Italian invasion,
951

World War II and,
962

revolution,
1075
–6

Etruscans

Villanovan culture,
158
,
185
,
229

culture,
227
–9

origins,
228
–9

Euclid (323–283
BC
), Greek geometrician,
220
,
338
,
415
,
538

Euripedes (
c.
484–407
BC
), Greek tragedian,
208

Europa, legendary Greek heroine,
99

European Coal and Steel Community,
1107

European Economic Community (Common Market),
1108
–9,
1112
–1113

European Economic Co-operation,
1107

European Union,
1037
,
1113
,
1153
–6,
1153
–8

Europe, Eastern

German expansion,
527
–8

socio-economic contrasts with W.,
531
,
564
,
567

Turkish confrontation,
610
–13

nationalism in,
872

revolutionary movements in,
896
–8,
905
–6

Versailles settlement and,
902

authoritarian regimes,
912

polycentrism,
1104

post-1945 economy
1136
–7

fall of communism,
1132
,
1136
–43

post-fall of communism,
1150
–2

and EU expansion,
1155

see also
Byzantium; Slavs; individual countries

Europe, Western

(i) prehistory:
Homo sapiens
prototypes,
19
; Palaeolithic cultures,
22
; Palaeolithic art,
23
–6; first agriculture,
33
; prehistoric cultures,
153
–5; racial groups,
154
–8; prehistoric insignificance,
154
–5,
157

(ii) early medieval: Arab incursions,
231
; post-Roman Germanic cultures,
301
–5,
313
–14; medieval civilization shaped,
393
–421

(iii) Middle Ages: interpretations,
489
–90; role of Church,
490
–503; political pattern,
503
–12; social and economic pattern,
512
–23; aggressive Christianity,
524
–8; navigational enterprise,
531
–6; mental enlargement,
536
–45

(iv) early modern: demography,
549
–53,
797
–9,
863
–6; economy,
552
–62; class structure,
563
–6; women,
568
–9; growth of state authority,
570
–97; dynastic political geography,
599
–609; Ottoman threats,
609
–11; imperial expansion,
630
–56

(v) modern: world-wide spread of values,
630
–3,
789
–93,
795
; 19th-cent. revolutionary politics,
746
–61,
866
–7; demography,
699
–704,
997
; agricultural revolution,
704
–7; industrialization,
709
–12,
864
; urbanization and labour,
712
–17,
866
; economic ideologies,
717
–19,
867
; political geography after Napoleon,
742
; centre of world trade,
793
–6; female emancipation,
869
–70; mental attitudes,
876
–882

(vi) 20th cent.: tensions,
883
–4; build-up to world War I,
892
–6,
898
; peace settlement,
899
–904; political regimes,
905
–7; economic slump,
912
–14; changing patterns of thought,
947
–8; World War II,
955
–67; Single European Currency,
1112
,
1154
–5

supranational organizations,
1107
–8

Ezekiel (7th cent.
BC
), Hebrew prophet,
261

Ezra (mid-5th cent.
BC
), Hebrew prophet,
262

factories

19th-cent. growth,
711

new social patterns,
715

legislation on,
784
,
785

assembly-line technique,
1007

Falkland Islands,
1111
–12

famine

in Roman empire,
308

medieval,
518

early modern outbreaks,
553
,
555

in Ireland,
704
,
750
,
787

in Russia,
704
,
908
,
1005

in India,
982

World War I and,
895

World War II,
965

in Africa,
1075

Faraday, Michael (1791–1867), British scientist,
878

fascism

authoritarianism,
904
,
911

in Italy,
909
–11

intellectual impetus,
947

Fatmid caliphate in Egypt,
342
,
372

feminism,
1033
–4

Ferdinand V (1452–1516), king of Castile (1474–1516) and Aragon (1479–1516),
508

Fertile Crescent,
32
–3

cultural melting-pot,
45
,
47
,
48
,
49
,
60
,
88

Hittite hegemony,
107

nomad intrusions,
108
,
117

see also
individual areas

feudalism

chain of obligation,
418
–21

in Japan,
471
,
841
,
843

increasingly unreal structure,
519
–22,
563

Tudors and,
573

abolished in France,
706
,
732
,
735

survival of values,
706
,
735

ended in Central Europe,
753

financial services

banking,
515
,
517
,
556

joint-stock companies
556
–7,
796

Stock Exchanges,
556
–7,
796

insurance schemes,
557

expansion of,
665
,
795

facilitate industrial growth,
712

focused on London,
794
–5

damaged by World War I,
899
,
912

Finland,
869
,
959
,
1155

fire, earliest use of,
14
–15

fish, fishing, trade in,
558
,
1117

Flanders

textile centres,
515

metallurgy,
516

drainage in,
554

independent tendencies,
584

Florence,
515
,
516
,
602

Council of,
385
,
529

food supply and diet

earliest storing,
10

meat-eating,
15

extension of sources,
23

Neolithic revolution,
29

in Mesopotamia,
49
–50

Egyptian diet,
71

in Africa,
150
–1

limited Dark Age diet,
417
–18

medieval European,
514

demographic dependence on,
555
–6,
699

increased variety of,
665

transplantation of commodities,
670
–1

revolutionary increases in supply,
705

processing and preserving,
870

world,
1000
–1,
1025
,
1117

S.E. Asia,
1053
,
1054

Ford, Gerald (1913–2006), US president,
1105
,
1113

Ford, Henry (1863–1947), US automobile manufacturer,
1007
–8

France

Neanderthal population,
26

Roman province (Gaul),
236
,
238
,
240
,
241
,
247

Germanic invasions,
292
–3,
301
–4

Frankish settlement,
303
repel Arabs,
331
,
397
,
410

support Papacy,
395

Charlemagne’s empire,
397
–401

divided,
401

territorial units,
402
,
405

medieval political patterns,
506
–7

peasant rebellion,
518

(i) early modern: class structure,
563
; wars of religion,
581
;
Frondes
,
589
; Louis XIV’s absolute monarchy,
590
,
592
–3,
596
; against Habsburgs,
596
,
599
–600,
602
,
604
; Louis XIV’s foreign policy,
605
–6; in S.E. Asia,
636
; in India,
638
,
640
; in Caribbean,
648
; in Canada,
650
–2,
653
; in black Africa,
668
;
philosophes
,
690
,
692
–3; ‘feudal system’ abolished,
706
,
732
,
735
; industrialization,
712
; American Revolution and,
723
,
729
–30