Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (56 page)

The political changes, and the alternating periods of prosperity and decline within the Īlkhānid state, did not reduce or modify the Mongolian threat in Mamluk eyes. Throughout the next sixty years the fortresses and garrisons along the Euphrates were maintained at the highest level.

Baybars gradually worked his way from the periphery to the center of the Sultanate. The first fortresses to be rebuilt were al-Bīra (1262)
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and
(1264), situated on the bank of the Euphrates. The Īlkhānids crossed at the same Euphrates fords and seldom used different routes. Most invasions began by crossing at al-Bīra and heading south towards Aleppo (
Map 2.2
).

Topography, the structure of the river, and the pasture and water sources before and after reaching the crossing did not leave much room for maneuvering.
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At the beginning of 1260 Hülegü turned to Syria after conquering the northern Jazīra. The following description of his crossing explains what guided the Mamluks in choosing certain points along the river to fortify.

And the King of Kings commanded, and bridges were tied over the Euphrates at Melitene, and
al-Rhomatia and at Birah, and at Circesium (Osrhoene),
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and troops crossed over into Syria together with the King of Kings himself … and troops, fighting men were posted against the fortress of Birah and against the fortress Kal’at Najm and against that of Kal’at
and Calonicus and Balish and the people that were in them were killed.
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Hülegü crossed near al-Bīra, divided his army and besieged al-Bīra,
Najm and
. The three fortresses fell within a matter of weeks and Aleppo was conquered shortly afterwards. In December 1299 Ghazan, unlike his predecessors, decided to cross south of
, five days march to Aleppo. A year later (in January 1301) he returned and crossed at the same place.
⁴⁶
In Ghazan’s third invasion the army crossed at
(east of Karbalā), and marched north along the bank of the river up to
.
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The last Īlkhānid invasion into Syria took place in 1312, during Öljeitü’s reign. The army left Mosul and crossed the Euphrates at Qirkasiya,
⁴⁸
some 60 km north of
.

The need to rebuild the two fortresses was a direct response to continual attempts of the Īlkhānid army to cross the fords at the nearest point to the northern Syrian cities. It is therefore surprising that the fortifications of Aleppo were not restored at the same time as those of
and al-Bīra, particularly since the city was the closest to the border and was exposed to assaults from both north and east. Aleppo’s fortifications were rebuilt shortly before the Mongol invasion of 658/1259. The account of the restoration reveals the expenses involved and the effect this had on the fortification plan. In 622/1223 the Atabeg of Aleppo, Shihābā al-Dīn Tughrīl, took it upon himself to build a 500
section of the city wall (i.e 340m; one
= 68cm) and to restore a number of towers that were in ruins.
⁴⁹
He summoned craftsmen and asked for their advice. They suggested that he move the moat to the lower part of the slope and raise the height of the walls. When the Atabeg calculated the costs and realized that this project would take a great deal of time to complete, he decided to dismiss the advisors and ignore their advice. Olive and mulberry tree trunks were used to rebuild
the foundations of the wall,
⁵⁰
and thus the grand project came to an end. According to Ibn Shaddād it was at this section that the Mongols breached the walls in 1260: “When the Mongols attacked [Aleppo] the sappers could undermine the wall only at this section (where the wall was supported by tree trunks of olive and mulberry).”
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