Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (57 page)

Ibn Shaddād, who was born and grew up in the city, managed to escape, and returned to Aleppo after it was re-taken by the Mamluks. His knowledge of the city makes him a reliable source. His account of Hülegü’s invasion of 1260 tells of the destruction of the urban fortifications, the city’s public buildings, and entire neighborhoods. Aleppo was struck once again during Abagha’s invasion in 1280. The urban fortifications remained in ruins for 32 years, until Qalāwūn began rebuilding the citadel. The wok was only completed in 1290–1 during the reign of his son, al-Ashraf Khalīl. Abū’l-Fidā’, who describes the invasion, does not elaborate on this issue and one cannot obtain any information concerning the scale of building.
⁵²
The Īlkhānid invasions of 1300 and 1301 may have brought further destruction to the city fortifications. It was, however, only during Barqūq’s rule (1382–99) that the fortifications were renewed.

It is not difficult to explain why Baybars ignored the need to refortify Aleppo. The earlier example of the Atabeg’s rejection of expert advice because of the heavy costs involved was probably a factor in Baybars’ decision. It seems likely that raising local taxes to help fund part of the outlay was not feasible, since the economy of the region had been badly damaged by the Mongols. Villages were deserted and a large part of the urban and farming population had fled. In addition there was a sharp decline in commerce along the trade routes between Syria and Iraq.
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If the sultan had decided to go ahead and restore the damage the greater part of the expense would have had to come out of his own treasury. The fortifications along the eastern frontier, however, were of the utmost importance as long as the Īlkhānid state existed and they were given priority by Baybars and his successors. In 1292 the sultan al-Ashraf Khalīl conquered
, refortified the site and established a new garrison.
⁵⁴
Two years before the official fall of the Īlkhānid state in 736/1335–6 the sultan
ordered the governor of Damascus to rebuild the fortifications of
, strengthen its garrison and nominate a
nā’ib
.
⁵⁵
By the time Abū
, the last Īlkhān, died (1335) there were four Mamluk fortresses along a stretch of 375 km of the upper Euphrates –
,
and
.

The conquest of the inland fortresses

At the same time as the conquest of al-Bīra and
the Mamluks turned their attention to fortresses located on or near the main routes running between Syria and Cairo. Chronologically,
does not fit this general theme. It was one of the first places that fell to the Mamluks. In the aftermath of Ayn Jālūt (1260) the Ayyubid prince al-Azīz
, lord of
, was executed and the site passed into the hands of the sultan. The fortress was manned and restoration began, lasting several years. An inscription found on one of the towers, states that it was completed in 1275.
⁵⁶
The importance of
derives from its location close to Damascus,
⁵⁷
providing protection against enemies advancing from the west, invasions heading towards the northern littoral or aiming to use the coastal road going south.