Bloodlands (88 page)
Authors: Timothy Snyder
61
Levine,
In Search of Sugihara
, 121; Sakamoto,
Japanese Diplomats
, 102; Kuromiya,
Między Warsawą a Tokio
, 470-485; Hasegawa,
Racing
, 13.
CHAPTER 4: MOLOTOV-RIBBENTROP EUROPELevine,
In Search of Sugihara
, 121; Sakamoto,
Japanese Diplomats
, 102; Kuromiya,
Między Warsawą a Tokio
, 470-485; Hasegawa,
Racing
, 13.
2
On Warsaw, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 171-172. On the strafing, see Datner,
55 Dni
, 96; and Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 67.
On Warsaw, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 171-172. On the strafing, see Datner,
55 Dni
, 96; and Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 67.
4
On the death of German soldiers as “murder,” see Datner,
Zbrodnie
, 73. For “insolence,” see Lukacs,
Last European War
, 58. On the barn and cavalry, see Datner,
Zbrodnie
, 72, 69; Rossino,
Hitler
, 166, 169; and Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 23.
On the death of German soldiers as “murder,” see Datner,
Zbrodnie
, 73. For “insolence,” see Lukacs,
Last European War
, 58. On the barn and cavalry, see Datner,
Zbrodnie
, 72, 69; Rossino,
Hitler
, 166, 169; and Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 23.
5
Here is the instruction in somewhat greater detail: “Close your hearts to pity. Brutal action. Eighty million must get their due. Their existence must be secured. The stronger has the right. The greatest of severity.” See Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 54. On Ciepielów, see Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 131. On the red cross, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 181; see also 184. For other tank incidents, see Datner,
Zbrodnia
, 62.
Here is the instruction in somewhat greater detail: “Close your hearts to pity. Brutal action. Eighty million must get their due. Their existence must be secured. The stronger has the right. The greatest of severity.” See Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 54. On Ciepielów, see Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 131. On the red cross, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 181; see also 184. For other tank incidents, see Datner,
Zbrodnia
, 62.
6
For “Poles are the slaves” and the death grimace, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 141, 204. On “the intention of the Leader to destroy and exterminate the Polish people,” see Mallmann,
Einsatzgruppen
, 57.
For “Poles are the slaves” and the death grimace, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 141, 204. On “the intention of the Leader to destroy and exterminate the Polish people,” see Mallmann,
Einsatzgruppen
, 57.
10
On Solec, see Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 116. On the Jewish boy who asked for water, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 172. On Dynów, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 200. Rossino estimates that Jews were seven thousand of the fifty thousand Polish civilians killed by the Germans by the end of 1939; see
Hitler
, 234. Mallman, Böhler, and Mathaüs also give these figures in
Einsatzgruppen
, at 88. Böhler estimates about thirty thousand by the end of October (
Verbrechen
, 140) and forty-five thousand, of whom seven thousand were Jews, by the end of the year (
Überfall
, 138).
On Solec, see Böhler,
Verbrechen
, 116. On the Jewish boy who asked for water, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 172. On Dynów, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 200. Rossino estimates that Jews were seven thousand of the fifty thousand Polish civilians killed by the Germans by the end of 1939; see
Hitler
, 234. Mallman, Böhler, and Mathaüs also give these figures in
Einsatzgruppen
, at 88. Böhler estimates about thirty thousand by the end of October (
Verbrechen
, 140) and forty-five thousand, of whom seven thousand were Jews, by the end of the year (
Überfall
, 138).
13
On the Lwów betrayal, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 20; Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 9-10; and Wnuk,
Za pierwszego Sowieta
, 35.
On the Lwów betrayal, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 20; Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 9-10; and Wnuk,
Za pierwszego Sowieta
, 35.
14
On the Ukrainian steppe, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 15. On the Polish farmers’ distress, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 98-99.
On the Ukrainian steppe, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 15. On the Polish farmers’ distress, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 98-99.
15
Hrycak estimates 125,000 prisoners of war (“Victims,” 179); Cienciala, 230,000-240,000 (
Crime
, 26). The Soviets also kept about fifteen thousand people for hard labor in the mines and in road-building, of whom some two thousand died in 1941 during evacuations; see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 180.
Hrycak estimates 125,000 prisoners of war (“Victims,” 179); Cienciala, 230,000-240,000 (
Crime
, 26). The Soviets also kept about fifteen thousand people for hard labor in the mines and in road-building, of whom some two thousand died in 1941 during evacuations; see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 180.
16
For examples of people moving from prison to power, taken from multiple regions, see HI 209/1/10420, HI 209/6/5157, HI 209/11/4217, HI 210/14/10544, HI 210/14/4527, HI 210/14/2526, HI 209/13/2935, and HI 210/12/1467. The instances
of violence given here are in Gross,
Revolution
, 37, 44. For details on similar incidents, see HI 209/13/2935, HI 209/13/3124, HI 210/1/4372, HI 210/5/4040, HI 210/14/4908, and HI 209/7/799.
For examples of people moving from prison to power, taken from multiple regions, see HI 209/1/10420, HI 209/6/5157, HI 209/11/4217, HI 210/14/10544, HI 210/14/4527, HI 210/14/2526, HI 209/13/2935, and HI 210/12/1467. The instances
of violence given here are in Gross,
Revolution
, 37, 44. For details on similar incidents, see HI 209/13/2935, HI 209/13/3124, HI 210/1/4372, HI 210/5/4040, HI 210/14/4908, and HI 209/7/799.
17
On the typical sentence, see Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 172. On the 109,400 people arrested and the 8,513 people sentenced to death, see Hryciuk, 182. On the disproportion between arrest and imprisonment numbers, see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 236; and Głowacki,
Sowieci
, 292.
On the typical sentence, see Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 172. On the 109,400 people arrested and the 8,513 people sentenced to death, see Hryciuk, 182. On the disproportion between arrest and imprisonment numbers, see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 236; and Głowacki,
Sowieci
, 292.
18
On the sixty-one thousand Polish citizens, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 15, also 30; “destroy Poland” is at 77. See also, generally, Ingrao, “Violence,” 219-220. On Heydrich and Hitler, see Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 57; and Mańkowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 7. On the doctorates, see Browning,
Origins
, 16.
On the sixty-one thousand Polish citizens, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 15, also 30; “destroy Poland” is at 77. See also, generally, Ingrao, “Violence,” 219-220. On Heydrich and Hitler, see Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 57; and Mańkowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 7. On the doctorates, see Browning,
Origins
, 16.
19
On Katowice, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 78. On the absence of good records, see Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 80.
On Katowice, see Rossino,
Hitler
, 78. On the absence of good records, see Mallman,
Einsatzgruppen
, 80.
20
The Einsatzgruppe z. b. V had the assignment of expelling Jews. See Rossino,
Hitler
, 90, 94, 98; the figure of twenty-two thousand is at 101. On Przemyśl, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 202-203. See also Pohl,
Herrschaft
, 52.
The Einsatzgruppe z. b. V had the assignment of expelling Jews. See Rossino,
Hitler
, 90, 94, 98; the figure of twenty-two thousand is at 101. On Przemyśl, see Böhler,
Überfall
, 202-203. See also Pohl,
Herrschaft
, 52.
21
On Hitler, see Rutherford,
Prelude
, 53. On Frank, see Seidel,
Besatzungspolitik
, 184 (including quotation). On Frank as Hitler’s former lawyer, see Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 74.
On Hitler, see Rutherford,
Prelude
, 53. On Frank, see Seidel,
Besatzungspolitik
, 184 (including quotation). On Frank as Hitler’s former lawyer, see Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 74.
24
On the 139,794 people taken from their homes, see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 184. Głowacki records temperatures of minus 42 Celsius, which is minus 43 Fahrenheit; see
Sowieci
, 328. See also Jolluck,
Exile
, 16.
On the 139,794 people taken from their homes, see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 184. Głowacki records temperatures of minus 42 Celsius, which is minus 43 Fahrenheit; see
Sowieci
, 328. See also Jolluck,
Exile
, 16.
25
On “hell” and the adult dead, see Wróbel,
Polskie dzieci
, 156, 178. See also Gross,
Revolution
, 214-218. For “their dreams and their wishes,” see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 78.
On “hell” and the adult dead, see Wróbel,
Polskie dzieci
, 156, 178. See also Gross,
Revolution
, 214-218. For “their dreams and their wishes,” see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 78.
27
There were 10,864 dead among deportees in special settlements by 1 July 1941; see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 279. On “the natives,” see
Dark Side
, 143. On the boots and swelling, see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 63, 88.
There were 10,864 dead among deportees in special settlements by 1 July 1941; see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 279. On “the natives,” see
Dark Side
, 143. On the boots and swelling, see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 63, 88.
28
On the skeletons, “what was in his heart,” and the white eagle emblem, see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 191, 202, 78 (also 71, 194).
On the skeletons, “what was in his heart,” and the white eagle emblem, see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 191, 202, 78 (also 71, 194).
32
On the numbers cited, see Rutherfold,
Prelude
, 59; Grynberg,
Relacje
, xii; and Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. I), 156, 189.
On the numbers cited, see Rutherfold,
Prelude
, 59; Grynberg,
Relacje
, xii; and Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. I), 156, 189.
33
For the deportation numbers, see Rutherford,
Prelude
, 1, also 75, 88. On Owińska, see Kershaw,
Hitler
, 535; and Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 75-76. On the murder of 7,700 Polish citizens found in mental institutions, see Browning,
Origins
, 189. See also Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 85.
For the deportation numbers, see Rutherford,
Prelude
, 1, also 75, 88. On Owińska, see Kershaw,
Hitler
, 535; and Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 75-76. On the murder of 7,700 Polish citizens found in mental institutions, see Browning,
Origins
, 189. See also Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 85.
36
For general descriptions of the three camps, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 29-33; also Abramov,
Murder
, 46, 83, 101; and Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 113-114. On the Christmas Day observances, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 156-157.
For general descriptions of the three camps, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 29-33; also Abramov,
Murder
, 46, 83, 101; and Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 113-114. On the Christmas Day observances, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 156-157.
37
Cienciala,
Crime
, 33. On the outlines and skeletons, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 16, 31; and Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 115-117. For the ravens, see Berling,
Wspomnienia
, 34.
Cienciala,
Crime
, 33. On the outlines and skeletons, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 16, 31; and Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 115-117. For the ravens, see Berling,
Wspomnienia
, 34.
38
Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 18; Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 58; Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 205-209; Cienciala,
Crime
, 33-35, 84-99, and for her estimate of the total number of informers (about one hundred), 159.
Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 18; Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 58; Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 205-209; Cienciala,
Crime
, 33-35, 84-99, and for her estimate of the total number of informers (about one hundred), 159.
39
Jakubowicz:
Pamiętniki znalezione
, 30, 38, 43, 53. On the return addresses, see Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 65.
Jakubowicz:
Pamiętniki znalezione
, 30, 38, 43, 53. On the return addresses, see Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 65.
40
On the dogs befriended by prisoners, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 256-257; Abramov,
Murderers
, 86, 102; and Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 43. On the veterinarian who looked after them, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 84, 256.
On the dogs befriended by prisoners, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 256-257; Abramov,
Murderers
, 86, 102; and Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 43. On the veterinarian who looked after them, see Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 84, 256.
41
On the Polish underground, see Wnuk,
Za pierwszego Sowieta
, 368-371. On the decision to execute the prisoners, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 116-120, quotations at 118. See also Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 129.
On the Polish underground, see Wnuk,
Za pierwszego Sowieta
, 368-371. On the decision to execute the prisoners, see Cienciala,
Crime
, 116-120, quotations at 118. See also Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 129.
42
Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 131, 144-145, 159. These 7,305 people were apparently shot at Bykivnia and Kuropaty, major killing sites of the Great Terror; see Kalbarczyk, “Przedmioty,” 47-53.
Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 131, 144-145, 159. These 7,305 people were apparently shot at Bykivnia and Kuropaty, major killing sites of the Great Terror; see Kalbarczyk, “Przedmioty,” 47-53.
43
Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 75; Cienciala,
Crime
, 122, 129-130, 175, quotation at 130. For additional passages from Adam Solski’s diary, see
Zagłada polskich elit
, 37.
Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 75; Cienciala,
Crime
, 122, 129-130, 175, quotation at 130. For additional passages from Adam Solski’s diary, see
Zagłada polskich elit
, 37.
49
Cienciala,
Crime
, 34; Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 18; Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 64; Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 225. For an informer on the system, see Berling,
Wspomnienia
, 32.
Cienciala,
Crime
, 34; Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 18; Swianiewicz,
Shadow
, 64; Młynarski,
W niewoli
, 225. For an informer on the system, see Berling,
Wspomnienia
, 32.
52
Cienciala,
Crime
, 118, 173-174, 198-199, quotation about fathers at 198. On the 60,667 people sent to special settlements in Kazakhstan, see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 187. On the “former people,” see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 282. See also Goussef, “Les déplacements,” 188. For wives being told they would be joining their husbands, see Jolluck,
Exile
, 16. For the “eternal mud and snow,” see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 79.
Cienciala,
Crime
, 118, 173-174, 198-199, quotation about fathers at 198. On the 60,667 people sent to special settlements in Kazakhstan, see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 187. On the “former people,” see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 282. See also Goussef, “Les déplacements,” 188. For wives being told they would be joining their husbands, see Jolluck,
Exile
, 16. For the “eternal mud and snow,” see Gross,
Children’s Eyes
, 79.
53
On the dung and the NKVD office, see Jolluck,
Exile
, 40, 122-123. On the economist, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 27.
On the dung and the NKVD office, see Jolluck,
Exile
, 40, 122-123. On the economist, see Czapski,
Wspomnienia
, 27.
54
Of the 78,339 people deported, about eighty-four percent were Jewish; see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 189.
Of the 78,339 people deported, about eighty-four percent were Jewish; see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 189.
57
Krebs, “Japan,” 545, 548; Levine,
Sugihara
, 132, 218, 262, 273; Sakamoto,
Japanese Diplomats
, 102, 107, 113-114.
Krebs, “Japan,” 545, 548; Levine,
Sugihara
, 132, 218, 262, 273; Sakamoto,
Japanese Diplomats
, 102, 107, 113-114.
58
For the numbers cited, see Polian,
Against Their Will
, 123. See also Weinberg,
World at Arms
, 167-169; and Kuromiya,
Między Warszawą a Tokio
, 470-485.
For the numbers cited, see Polian,
Against Their Will
, 123. See also Weinberg,
World at Arms
, 167-169; and Kuromiya,
Między Warszawą a Tokio
, 470-485.
59
This figure—408, 525 deportations—is the sum of the major actions. Rutherford estimates 500,000 total; see
Prelude
, 7.
This figure—408, 525 deportations—is the sum of the major actions. Rutherford estimates 500,000 total; see
Prelude
, 7.
60
On Eichmann and the January 1940 proposal, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 3, 7, 19.
On Eichmann and the January 1940 proposal, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 3, 7, 19.
61
On the origins of Łódź’s ghetto, see Grynberg,
Życie
, 430. Unrivalled in its description of the Warsaw ghetto is Engelking,
Getto warszawskie
, in English translation as
The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City.
On Schön, see T. B., “Organizator,” 85-90. On German intentions and on population movements, see Browning,
Origins
, 100-124.
On the origins of Łódź’s ghetto, see Grynberg,
Życie
, 430. Unrivalled in its description of the Warsaw ghetto is Engelking,
Getto warszawskie
, in English translation as
The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City.
On Schön, see T. B., “Organizator,” 85-90. On German intentions and on population movements, see Browning,
Origins
, 100-124.
62
Drozdowski, “Fischer,” 189-190. See also Engelking,
Getto warszawskie
, chap. 2. Ringelblum is cited in Friedländer,
Extermination
, 160; on tourists, see also Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 95.
Drozdowski, “Fischer,” 189-190. See also Engelking,
Getto warszawskie
, chap. 2. Ringelblum is cited in Friedländer,
Extermination
, 160; on tourists, see also Mazower,
Hitler’s Empire
, 95.
63
Quotation:
Zagłada polskich elit
, 23. See also Longerich,
Unwritten Order
, 55; Kershaw,
Fateful Choices
, 447. Some 11,437 people died in the Łódź ghetto in 1941; see Grynberg,
Życie
, 430.
Quotation:
Zagłada polskich elit
, 23. See also Longerich,
Unwritten Order
, 55; Kershaw,
Fateful Choices
, 447. Some 11,437 people died in the Łódź ghetto in 1941; see Grynberg,
Życie
, 430.
64
See, above all, Żbikowski, “Żydowscy przesiedleńcy,” 224-228; also Grynberg,
Relacje
, 244; Browning,
Origins
, 124; and Kassow,
Archive
, 107, 273. These movements were senseless, even from a German perspective: Jews were cleared from the Warsaw district from January to March 1941 to make room for Poles who were to be expelled from the Warthegau, who were removed to make room for Germans, who were coming west from the Soviet Union: but Germany would invade the Soviet Union in June 1941, so that Germans could move east and colonize its lands.
See, above all, Żbikowski, “Żydowscy przesiedleńcy,” 224-228; also Grynberg,
Relacje
, 244; Browning,
Origins
, 124; and Kassow,
Archive
, 107, 273. These movements were senseless, even from a German perspective: Jews were cleared from the Warsaw district from January to March 1941 to make room for Poles who were to be expelled from the Warthegau, who were removed to make room for Germans, who were coming west from the Soviet Union: but Germany would invade the Soviet Union in June 1941, so that Germans could move east and colonize its lands.
65
On Sborow and Lederman, see Sakowska,
Dzieci
, 51, 50. Quotation: Żbikowski, “Żydowscy przesiedleńcy,” 260.
On Sborow and Lederman, see Sakowska,
Dzieci
, 51, 50. Quotation: Żbikowski, “Żydowscy przesiedleńcy,” 260.
66
“Sprawozdania Świetliczanek,” 65, quotations at 70, 69.
“Sprawozdania Świetliczanek,” 65, quotations at 70, 69.
67
On the two different approaches to elites, see Friedländer,
Extermination
, 40. See also Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
, 364-365; and Mańkowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 9-11, quotation at 11. Compare Cienciala,
Crime
, 114-115; and Jolluck,
Exile
, 15.
On the two different approaches to elites, see Friedländer,
Extermination
, 40. See also Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
, 364-365; and Mańkowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 9-11, quotation at 11. Compare Cienciala,
Crime
, 114-115; and Jolluck,
Exile
, 15.
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