Bloodlands (86 page)
Authors: Timothy Snyder
68
On the deathly quiet of Soviet Ukraine, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31; and Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 104. See also Arendt,
Totalitarianism
, 320-322.
On the deathly quiet of Soviet Ukraine, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31; and Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 104. See also Arendt,
Totalitarianism
, 320-322.
71
On Łowińska, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 104. On Panasenko, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 105. Kravchenko recounted this experience in
I Chose Freedom
, 104-106.
On Łowińska, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 104. On Panasenko, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 105. Kravchenko recounted this experience in
I Chose Freedom
, 104-106.
72
On the fifteen thousand people deported, see Davies,
Years
, 210. On the sixty thousand people deported from Kuban, see Martin, “Ethnic Cleansing,” 846.
On the fifteen thousand people deported, see Davies,
Years
, 210. On the sixty thousand people deported from Kuban, see Martin, “Ethnic Cleansing,” 846.
73
On the 67,297 people who died in the camps, see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 62, 77. On the 241,355 people who died in the special settlements, see Viola,
Unknown Gulag
, 241.
On the 67,297 people who died in the camps, see Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 62, 77. On the 241,355 people who died in the special settlements, see Viola,
Unknown Gulag
, 241.
75
Quotations: Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 215-219; Kul’chyts’kyi,
Kolektyvizatsiia
, 365. On life expectancy in Soviet Ukraine, see Vallin, “New Estimate,” 256.
Quotations: Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 215-219; Kul’chyts’kyi,
Kolektyvizatsiia
, 365. On life expectancy in Soviet Ukraine, see Vallin, “New Estimate,” 256.
77
On prostitution for flour, see Kuromiya,
Famine and Terror
, 173. On Vynnitsia, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 95. On fear of cannibals, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 284. On the peasants in train stations, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 155. On the city police, see Falk,
Sowjetische Städte
. On Savhira, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 290.
On prostitution for flour, see Kuromiya,
Famine and Terror
, 173. On Vynnitsia, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 95. On fear of cannibals, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 284. On the peasants in train stations, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 155. On the city police, see Falk,
Sowjetische Städte
. On Savhira, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 290.
78
Quotation: Czech, “Wielki Głód,” 23. On the cannibalized son, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 132. For the knife-sharpening incident, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 168. On pigs, see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 172.
Quotation: Czech, “Wielki Głód,” 23. On the cannibalized son, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 132. For the knife-sharpening incident, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 168. On pigs, see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 172.
79
On the half a million boys and girls in the watchtowers, see Maksudov, “Victory,” 213. Quotation: Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 119.
On the half a million boys and girls in the watchtowers, see Maksudov, “Victory,” 213. Quotation: Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 119.
80
On the woman doctor, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 262. On the orphans, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 157; and Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 142. See also Graziosi, “Italian Archival Documents,” 41.
On the woman doctor, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 262. On the orphans, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 157; and Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 142. See also Graziosi, “Italian Archival Documents,” 41.
82
On the 2,505 people sentenced for cannibalism, see Davies,
Years
, 173. For details of the chimney example, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31. On the meat quota, see Conquest,
Harvest
, 227.
On the 2,505 people sentenced for cannibalism, see Davies,
Years
, 173. For details of the chimney example, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31. On the meat quota, see Conquest,
Harvest
, 227.
83
On the anti-cannibalism ethic, see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 173. On Kolya Graniewicz, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 76. For the mother’s request, see Conquest,
Harvest
, 258.
On the anti-cannibalism ethic, see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 173. On Kolya Graniewicz, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 76. For the mother’s request, see Conquest,
Harvest
, 258.
84
Quotation: Bruski,
Holodomor
, 179. On the agronomist, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 261. On the crews and burials, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31, 306, 345.
Quotation: Bruski,
Holodomor
, 179. On the agronomist, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 261. On the crews and burials, see Kovalenko,
Holod
, 31, 306, 345.
87
On the Soviet census, see Schlögel,
Terror
. For discussion of 5.5 million as a typical estimate, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 259.
On the Soviet census, see Schlögel,
Terror
. For discussion of 5.5 million as a typical estimate, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 259.
88
The demographic retrojection is Vallin, “New Estimate,” which finds 2.6 million “extraordinary deaths” at 252 in Soviet Ukraine for 1928-1937, from which one would have to subtract other mass murders to find a famine total. For a summary of the January 2010 government study, see
Dzerkalo Tyzhnia
, 15-22 January 2010. The estimate of c. 2.5 million
on the basis of recorded deaths only
is in Kul’chyts’kyi, “Trahichna,” 73-74. Ellman estimates 9.0-12.3 million total famine deaths in the Soviet Union for 1933 and 1934 (“Note on the Number,” 376). Maksudov estimates losses of 3.9 million Ukrainians between 1926 and 1937 (“Victory,” 229). Graziosi estimates 3.5-3.8 million in Soviet Ukraine (“New Interpretation,” 6).
The demographic retrojection is Vallin, “New Estimate,” which finds 2.6 million “extraordinary deaths” at 252 in Soviet Ukraine for 1928-1937, from which one would have to subtract other mass murders to find a famine total. For a summary of the January 2010 government study, see
Dzerkalo Tyzhnia
, 15-22 January 2010. The estimate of c. 2.5 million
on the basis of recorded deaths only
is in Kul’chyts’kyi, “Trahichna,” 73-74. Ellman estimates 9.0-12.3 million total famine deaths in the Soviet Union for 1933 and 1934 (“Note on the Number,” 376). Maksudov estimates losses of 3.9 million Ukrainians between 1926 and 1937 (“Victory,” 229). Graziosi estimates 3.5-3.8 million in Soviet Ukraine (“New Interpretation,” 6).
89
Quotation: Serbyn, “Lemkin.” See also, generally, Martin,
Affirmative Action Empire
; and Snyder,
Sketches.
Quotation: Serbyn, “Lemkin.” See also, generally, Martin,
Affirmative Action Empire
; and Snyder,
Sketches.
90
Quotations: Koestler,
God That Failed
, 68; Weissberg-Cybulski,
Wielka Czystka
, 266; Koestler,
God That Failed
, 77.
Quotations: Koestler,
God That Failed
, 68; Weissberg-Cybulski,
Wielka Czystka
, 266; Koestler,
God That Failed
, 77.
91
On the arch, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 178. On the wealth transfers, see Falk,
Sowjetische Städte
, 288; Davies,
Years
, 158; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 237. On the “sausage makers,” see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 172.
On the arch, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 178. On the wealth transfers, see Falk,
Sowjetische Städte
, 288; Davies,
Years
, 158; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 237. On the “sausage makers,” see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 172.
92
Quotation: Conquest,
Harvest
, 256. See also, generally, Slezkine,
Jewish Century
; and Fitzpatrick,
Education
.
Quotation: Conquest,
Harvest
, 256. See also, generally, Slezkine,
Jewish Century
; and Fitzpatrick,
Education
.
93
Quotations: Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 17; Polish Consul-General, 4 February 1933, CAW I/303/4/1867; Border Defense Corps, 15 November 1933, CAW I/303/4/6906. On the hopes for war, see Snyder,
Sketches
, 110. For letters of Soviet Germans to Germany, see
Hungersnot.
See also Berkhoff, “Great Famine.”
Quotations: Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 17; Polish Consul-General, 4 February 1933, CAW I/303/4/1867; Border Defense Corps, 15 November 1933, CAW I/303/4/6906. On the hopes for war, see Snyder,
Sketches
, 110. For letters of Soviet Germans to Germany, see
Hungersnot.
See also Berkhoff, “Great Famine.”
94
A relevant speech from Hitler can be found in
Deutschösterreichische Tageszeitung
, 3 March 1933. On the cardinals, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 254. for Innitzer’s interventions, see
Reichspost
, 20 August 1933 and 12 October 1933; and
Die Neue Zeitung
, 14 October 1933.
A relevant speech from Hitler can be found in
Deutschösterreichische Tageszeitung
, 3 March 1933. On the cardinals, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 254. for Innitzer’s interventions, see
Reichspost
, 20 August 1933 and 12 October 1933; and
Die Neue Zeitung
, 14 October 1933.
95
For Duranty, see
New York Times
, 31 March 1933. On Muggeridge, see Taylor, “Blanket of Silence,” 82. For Orwell, see
Orwell and Politics
, 33-34. See also Engerman,
Modernization
, 211. In fairness to the
New York Times
: two anonymous articles of 1 and 11 January 1933 used the concepts of “man-made” hunger and “war with the peasantry.”
For Duranty, see
New York Times
, 31 March 1933. On Muggeridge, see Taylor, “Blanket of Silence,” 82. For Orwell, see
Orwell and Politics
, 33-34. See also Engerman,
Modernization
, 211. In fairness to the
New York Times
: two anonymous articles of 1 and 11 January 1933 used the concepts of “man-made” hunger and “war with the peasantry.”
97
On Soviet counterpropaganda, see Papuha,
Zakhidna Ukraïna
, 56. On Herriot’s weight, see
Time
, 31 October 1932. See also Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 177; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 314.
On Soviet counterpropaganda, see Papuha,
Zakhidna Ukraïna
, 56. On Herriot’s weight, see
Time
, 31 October 1932. See also Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 177; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 314.
98
Quotations: Kovalenko,
Holod
, 353; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 180; see also 175-179. See also Mark,
Hungersnot
, 26-27; Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 21; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 256-257, 283;
Time
, 22 January 1934.
Quotations: Kovalenko,
Holod
, 353; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 180; see also 175-179. See also Mark,
Hungersnot
, 26-27; Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 21; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 256-257, 283;
Time
, 22 January 1934.
99
Marochko,
Holodomor
, 257; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 176-177;
Time
, 11 September 1933. Final paragraph: Werth, “Un État”; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 283. In fairness to Herriot: he abstained in the June 1940 parliamentary vote to grant Petain full powers in France and was arrested and sent to Germany at the end of the German occupation.
CHAPTER 2: CLASS TERRORMarochko,
Holodomor
, 257; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 176-177;
Time
, 11 September 1933. Final paragraph: Werth, “Un État”; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 283. In fairness to Herriot: he abstained in the June 1940 parliamentary vote to grant Petain full powers in France and was arrested and sent to Germany at the end of the German occupation.
4
On German voters, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988 and passim. On Dachau, see Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 14. For quotation and analysis of Himmler, see Eiber, “Gewalt in KZ Dachau,” 172.
On German voters, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988 and passim. On Dachau, see Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 14. For quotation and analysis of Himmler, see Eiber, “Gewalt in KZ Dachau,” 172.
7
On “class against class,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 85. On voting behavior, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988. See also, generally, Bayerlein, “Abschied.”
On “class against class,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 85. On voting behavior, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988. See also, generally, Bayerlein, “Abschied.”
15
The surest guide is Kołakowski,
Main Currents.
The most famous anecdotal definition is that provided by the veteran communist to Jorgé Semprun at Buchenwald: “C’est l’art et la manière de toujours retomber sur ces pattes, mon vieux!”
The surest guide is Kołakowski,
Main Currents.
The most famous anecdotal definition is that provided by the veteran communist to Jorgé Semprun at Buchenwald: “C’est l’art et la manière de toujours retomber sur ces pattes, mon vieux!”
16
Graziosi, “New Interpretation.”
Graziosi, “New Interpretation.”
18
These numbers will be elucidated in this and the following chapter.
These numbers will be elucidated in this and the following chapter.
19
On the dialectics involved, see Burrin,
Fascisme
,
nazisme
,
autoritarisme
, 202, 209. See also, generally, Weber,
Hollow Years
. On Blum, see Judt,
Burden of Responsibility.
On the dialectics involved, see Burrin,
Fascisme
,
nazisme
,
autoritarisme
, 202, 209. See also, generally, Weber,
Hollow Years
. On Blum, see Judt,
Burden of Responsibility.
20
Haslam,
Collective Security
, 120-121. On the Soviet press, see Schlögel,
Terror
, 136-137. See also, generally, Beevor,
Battle for Spain.
On the essential point, I am following Furet,
Passé.
Haslam,
Collective Security
, 120-121. On the Soviet press, see Schlögel,
Terror
, 136-137. See also, generally, Beevor,
Battle for Spain.
On the essential point, I am following Furet,
Passé.
22
On 11 May, see Kuromiya, “Anti-Russian,” 1427.
On 11 May, see Kuromiya, “Anti-Russian,” 1427.
23
Quotation: Kuromiya, “Notatka,” 133, also 119.
Quotation: Kuromiya, “Notatka,” 133, also 119.
24
Levine,
In Search of Sugihara
, 13-89; Kuromiya,
Między Warszawą a Tokio
, 160-175; Siriol Colley,
Incident.
Levine,
In Search of Sugihara
, 13-89; Kuromiya,
Między Warszawą a Tokio
, 160-175; Siriol Colley,
Incident.
25
Haslam analyzes China within the Popular Front framework; see
East
, 64-70. On Xinjiang, see Millward,
Eurasian Crossroads
, 206-207. On the “Long March,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 100.
Haslam analyzes China within the Popular Front framework; see
East
, 64-70. On Xinjiang, see Millward,
Eurasian Crossroads
, 206-207. On the “Long March,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 100.
27
Quotation: McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 121.
Quotation: McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 121.
30
On the history of the troika, see Wheatcroft, “Mass Killings,” 126-139. For general introductions to the state police, see Andrew,
KGB
; and Dziak,
Chekisty.
On the history of the troika, see Wheatcroft, “Mass Killings,” 126-139. For general introductions to the state police, see Andrew,
KGB
; and Dziak,
Chekisty.
32
On Yezhov’s associates and their methods, see Wheatcroft, “Agency,” 38-40. For Stalin’s solicitude about Yezhov’s health, see Getty,
Yezhov
, 216.
On Yezhov’s associates and their methods, see Wheatcroft, “Agency,” 38-40. For Stalin’s solicitude about Yezhov’s health, see Getty,
Yezhov
, 216.
34
Quotation: Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 122. There were of course exceptions, such as Antoni Słonimski; see Shore,
Caviar and Ashes
, 150. On fascism and anti-fascism, see Furet,
Passé.
Quotation: Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 122. There were of course exceptions, such as Antoni Słonimski; see Shore,
Caviar and Ashes
, 150. On fascism and anti-fascism, see Furet,
Passé.
35
Werth,
Terreur
, 282. See also Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 121. The theme of strength in weakness was developed by Furet,
Passé.
Werth,
Terreur
, 282. See also Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 121. The theme of strength in weakness was developed by Furet,
Passé.
36
Orwell,
Homage
, 145-149, at 149. See also Furet,
Passé
, 296, 301, 306; and Haslam,
Collective Security
, 133.
Orwell,
Homage
, 145-149, at 149. See also Furet,
Passé
, 296, 301, 306; and Haslam,
Collective Security
, 133.
37
56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937-1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen,
Executioner
, 75. On the Red Army generals, see Wieczorkiewicz,
Łańcuch
, 296. This is a fundamental work on the military purges.
56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937-1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen,
Executioner
, 75. On the Red Army generals, see Wieczorkiewicz,
Łańcuch
, 296. This is a fundamental work on the military purges.
40
On Himmler’s rise, see Longerich,
Himmler.
On the police structures, see Westermann, “Ideological Soldiers,” 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police institutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
On Himmler’s rise, see Longerich,
Himmler.
On the police structures, see Westermann, “Ideological Soldiers,” 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police institutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
42
These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7.
These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7.
43
Compare Wheatcroft, “Mass Killing,” 139.
Compare Wheatcroft, “Mass Killing,” 139.
46
On religious faith, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 124; and Binner, “S etoj,” 181-183.
On religious faith, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 124; and Binner, “S etoj,” 181-183.
47
Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 527-531, quotation at 531.
Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 527-531, quotation at 531.
48
On the Siberian Terror, see Ablažej, “Die ROVS-Operation,” 287-298; Baberowski,
Terror
, 189-190; and Kuromiya, “Accounting,” 93.
On the Siberian Terror, see Ablažej, “Die ROVS-Operation,” 287-298; Baberowski,
Terror
, 189-190; and Kuromiya, “Accounting,” 93.
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