Bloodlands (87 page)
Authors: Timothy Snyder
49
Binner, “Massenmord,” 561-562; Werth,
Terreur
, 283. On “an extra thousand,” Jansen,
Executioner
, 82, 87.
Binner, “Massenmord,” 561-562; Werth,
Terreur
, 283. On “an extra thousand,” Jansen,
Executioner
, 82, 87.
50
For “once and for all,” see Binner, “Massenmord,” 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 93.
For “once and for all,” see Binner, “Massenmord,” 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 93.
52
Binner, “Massenmord,” 565-568.
Binner, “Massenmord,” 565-568.
53
Ibid., 567.
Ibid., 567.
54
Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakom,” 118. See also Weissberg,
Wielka czystka
, 293. For the signing of blank pages, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 127.
Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakom,” 118. See also Weissberg,
Wielka czystka
, 293. For the signing of blank pages, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 127.
55
Binner, “Massenmord,” 571-577. Sometimes Stalin’s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz’niatsou,
Kanveer
, 72-73. Some 1,825 prisoners of Solovki would eventually be shot.
Binner, “Massenmord,” 571-577. Sometimes Stalin’s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz’niatsou,
Kanveer
, 72-73. Some 1,825 prisoners of Solovki would eventually be shot.
56
On Omsk, see Binner, “Massenmord,” 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 129. See also Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 150.
On Omsk, see Binner, “Massenmord,” 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 129. See also Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 150.
57
For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 130, 131; and Schlögel,
Terror
, 602, 618. On the explosives, see Gregory,
Terror
, 71.
For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 130, 131; and Schlögel,
Terror
, 602, 618. On the explosives, see Gregory,
Terror
, 71.
58
On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 201. On the remaining numbers, see Binner, “S etoj,” 207. On the camps, see Werth,
Terreur
, 285; and Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 332. On the elderly, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 99. On the shooting of thirty-five deaf and dumb people,” see Schlögel,
Terror
, 624; McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 136; and Binner, “Massenmord,” 590.
On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 201. On the remaining numbers, see Binner, “S etoj,” 207. On the camps, see Werth,
Terreur
, 285; and Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 332. On the elderly, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 99. On the shooting of thirty-five deaf and dumb people,” see Schlögel,
Terror
, 624; McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 136; and Binner, “Massenmord,” 590.
59
On the events of December and February, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 623; and Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 100. On Leplevskii’s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 634-635.
On the events of December and February, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 623; and Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 100. On Leplevskii’s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 634-635.
62
Gurianov, “Obzor,” 202.
Gurianov, “Obzor,” 202.
63
Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 26-27. Perhaps 5,000-15,000 people were sent to concentration camps for homosexuality, of whom perhaps half died by the end of the Second World War; see Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 535.
Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 26-27. Perhaps 5,000-15,000 people were sent to concentration camps for homosexuality, of whom perhaps half died by the end of the Second World War; see Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 535.
64
Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 4, 20, 21, 27; Evans,
Power
, 87. The argument about the swinging pendulum of nationality policy is powerfully formulated by Martin in
Affirmative Action Empire.
CHAPTER 3: NATIONAL TERRORGoeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 4, 20, 21, 27; Evans,
Power
, 87. The argument about the swinging pendulum of nationality policy is powerfully formulated by Martin in
Affirmative Action Empire.
1
Martin, “Origins,” brings analytical rigor to the national operations. Quotation: Jansen,
Executioner
, 96; see also Baberowski,
Terror
, 198.
Martin, “Origins,” brings analytical rigor to the national operations. Quotation: Jansen,
Executioner
, 96; see also Baberowski,
Terror
, 198.
3
Snyder,
Sketches
, 115-116. The “Polish Military Organization” idea seems to have originated in 1929, when a Soviet agent was placed in charge of the security commission of the Communist Party of Poland; see Stroński,
Represje
, 210.
Snyder,
Sketches
, 115-116. The “Polish Military Organization” idea seems to have originated in 1929, when a Soviet agent was placed in charge of the security commission of the Communist Party of Poland; see Stroński,
Represje
, 210.
4
Stroński,
Represje
, 211-213. On Sochacki, see Kieszczyński, “Represje,” 202. For further details on Wandurski, see Shore,
Caviar and Ashes.
At least one important Polish communist did return from the Soviet Union and work for the Poles: his book is Reguła,
Historia.
Stroński,
Represje
, 211-213. On Sochacki, see Kieszczyński, “Represje,” 202. For further details on Wandurski, see Shore,
Caviar and Ashes.
At least one important Polish communist did return from the Soviet Union and work for the Poles: his book is Reguła,
Historia.
5
On January 1934, see Stroński,
Represje
, 226-227. For the motives and numbers of later deportations, see Kupczak,
Polacy
, 324.
On January 1934, see Stroński,
Represje
, 226-227. For the motives and numbers of later deportations, see Kupczak,
Polacy
, 324.
6
On the first cue, see Kuromiya,
Voices
, 221. For “know everything,” see Stroński,
Represje
, 2336-227. See also Morris, “Polish Terror,” 756-757.
On the first cue, see Kuromiya,
Voices
, 221. For “know everything,” see Stroński,
Represje
, 2336-227. See also Morris, “Polish Terror,” 756-757.
8
Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 337; Stroński,
Represje
, 227. For details on Balyts’kyi, see Shapoval, “Balyts’kyi,” 69-74. A similar fate awaited Stanisław Kosior, the former head of the Ukrainian section of the party, who was Polish. He too had played a major role in the starvation campaign of 1933, and he too was executed as a Polish spy.
Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 337; Stroński,
Represje
, 227. For details on Balyts’kyi, see Shapoval, “Balyts’kyi,” 69-74. A similar fate awaited Stanisław Kosior, the former head of the Ukrainian section of the party, who was Polish. He too had played a major role in the starvation campaign of 1933, and he too was executed as a Polish spy.
9
For further discussion of the origins of the Polish operation, see Rubl’ov “Represii proty poliakiv,” 126; Paczkowski, “Pologne,” 400; and Stroński,
Represje
, 220.
For further discussion of the origins of the Polish operation, see Rubl’ov “Represii proty poliakiv,” 126; Paczkowski, “Pologne,” 400; and Stroński,
Represje
, 220.
12
Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 154; Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 105. Figures on representatives of national minorities are given later in the chapter.
Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 154; Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 105. Figures on representatives of national minorities are given later in the chapter.
13
On the “suppliers,” see Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 118. On the Polish diplomats, see Snyder,
Sketches
, 121-127. For the date on the central committee, see Kieszczyński, “Represje,” 198. On the experiences of Polish communists in the USSR, Budzyńska’s
Strzępy
is invaluable.
On the “suppliers,” see Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 118. On the Polish diplomats, see Snyder,
Sketches
, 121-127. For the date on the central committee, see Kieszczyński, “Represje,” 198. On the experiences of Polish communists in the USSR, Budzyńska’s
Strzępy
is invaluable.
18
On the Juriewicz family, see Głębocki, “Pierwszy,” 158-166, at 164.
On the Juriewicz family, see Głębocki, “Pierwszy,” 158-166, at 164.
19
On the Makowski family, see Głębowski, “Pierwszy,” 166-172. For the figure 6,597, see Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 168.
On the Makowski family, see Głębowski, “Pierwszy,” 166-172. For the figure 6,597, see Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 168.
20
Ilic, “Leningrad,” 1522.
Ilic, “Leningrad,” 1522.
21
Awakened: Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 236.
Black raven
appears in Polish and Russian,
black maria
in Russian. For attestation to
soul destroyer
, which was later used in reference to German gas vans, see Schlögel,
Terror
, 615. On Kuntsevo, see Vashlin,
Terror
, 40, 44.
Awakened: Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 236.
Black raven
appears in Polish and Russian,
black maria
in Russian. For attestation to
soul destroyer
, which was later used in reference to German gas vans, see Schlögel,
Terror
, 615. On Kuntsevo, see Vashlin,
Terror
, 40, 44.
22
On the sources of Polish borderland identity, see Snyder,
Reconstruction of Nations.
The redefinitions of Soviet Poles is the central subject of Brown,
No Place.
On the sources of Polish borderland identity, see Snyder,
Reconstruction of Nations.
The redefinitions of Soviet Poles is the central subject of Brown,
No Place.
23
On the national purge, see Naumov,
NKVD
, 262-266; flower quotation at 266. Berman quotation: Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakow,” 115. On the 218 writers, see Mironowicz,
Białoruś
, 88-89. See also Junge,
Vertikal’
, 624.
On the national purge, see Naumov,
NKVD
, 262-266; flower quotation at 266. Berman quotation: Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakow,” 115. On the 218 writers, see Mironowicz,
Białoruś
, 88-89. See also Junge,
Vertikal’
, 624.
24
For further discussion of this method of killing, see Goujon, “Kurapaty”; and Marples, “Kurapaty,” 513-517. See also Ziółkowska, “Kurapaty,” 47-49.
For further discussion of this method of killing, see Goujon, “Kurapaty”; and Marples, “Kurapaty,” 513-517. See also Ziółkowska, “Kurapaty,” 47-49.
25
For the figure of 17,772 sentences, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 168. On the total number of deaths (61,501), see Morris, “Polish Terror,” 759.
For the figure of 17,772 sentences, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 168. On the total number of deaths (61,501), see Morris, “Polish Terror,” 759.
26
Jansen,
Yezhov
, 258. On Uspenskii, compare Parrish,
Lesser Terror
, 6, 11; and Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 240.
Jansen,
Yezhov
, 258. On Uspenskii, compare Parrish,
Lesser Terror
, 6, 11; and Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 240.
32
On autumn 1937 and the orphanages, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 26; Kupczak,
Polacy
, 327, 329; and Jansen,
Executioner
, 97. On Piwiński and Paszkiewicz, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 151, 168.
On autumn 1937 and the orphanages, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 26; Kupczak,
Polacy
, 327, 329; and Jansen,
Executioner
, 97. On Piwiński and Paszkiewicz, see Dzwonkowski,
Głód
, 151, 168.
36
For the figure 111,091, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 32. For the estimate of eighty-five thousand executions of Soviet Poles, see Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 171. Jansen,
Executioner
, 99, draws a similar conclusion. Naumov estimates the Polish dead at 95,000; see
NKVD
, 299. See also Schlögel,
Terror
, 636.
For the figure 111,091, see Petrov, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 32. For the estimate of eighty-five thousand executions of Soviet Poles, see Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 171. Jansen,
Executioner
, 99, draws a similar conclusion. Naumov estimates the Polish dead at 95,000; see
NKVD
, 299. See also Schlögel,
Terror
, 636.
37
Compare Morris, “Polish Terror,” 762, whose calculations are almost identical.
Compare Morris, “Polish Terror,” 762, whose calculations are almost identical.
38
For comparative arrest numbers, see Khaustov, “Deiatel’nost,” 316. Here and elsewhere, remarks about the weakness of the Polish intelligence presence in 1937 and 1938 are based upon weeks of review of the pertinent files of the Second Department of the Polish General Staff in the Polish military archives (the Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW). See Snyder,
Sketches
, 83-112, for a more detailed discussion and a range of archival citations. I also discuss there the question of the harm the Terror did to the Soviet security position.
For comparative arrest numbers, see Khaustov, “Deiatel’nost,” 316. Here and elsewhere, remarks about the weakness of the Polish intelligence presence in 1937 and 1938 are based upon weeks of review of the pertinent files of the Second Department of the Polish General Staff in the Polish military archives (the Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW). See Snyder,
Sketches
, 83-112, for a more detailed discussion and a range of archival citations. I also discuss there the question of the harm the Terror did to the Soviet security position.
39
In the Caucasus, smaller numbers of people were also forcibly transferred; see Baberowski,
Feind
, 771-772. On the killing of 20,474 people, see Kuromiya, “Asian Nexus,” 13. See also Gelb, “Koreans.”
In the Caucasus, smaller numbers of people were also forcibly transferred; see Baberowski,
Feind
, 771-772. On the killing of 20,474 people, see Kuromiya, “Asian Nexus,” 13. See also Gelb, “Koreans.”
40
Quotation: Evans,
Power
, 357. On the German action, see Order 00439 (55,005 sentences, 41,989 death sentences). See also Schlögel,
Terror
, 628.
Quotation: Evans,
Power
, 357. On the German action, see Order 00439 (55,005 sentences, 41,989 death sentences). See also Schlögel,
Terror
, 628.
41
Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 147. I am citing the figures in Binner, “S etoj,” 207. Martin gives 386,798 deaths under Order 00447; see “Origins,” 855.
Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 147. I am citing the figures in Binner, “S etoj,” 207. Martin gives 386,798 deaths under Order 00447; see “Origins,” 855.
42
Soviet Ukraine represented twenty-two percent of the population and saw twenty-seven percent of the convictions; see Gregory,
Terror
, 265. For the 123,421
death sentences, see Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 402; at 340 are the national proportions of those arrested during 1937-1938 in Soviet Ukraine: Ukrainians 53.2 percent (78.2 percent of population), Russians 7.7 percent (11.3 percent of population), Jews 2.6 percent (5.2 percent of population), Poles 18.9 percent (1.5 percent of population), and Germans 10.2 percent (1.4 percent of population).
Soviet Ukraine represented twenty-two percent of the population and saw twenty-seven percent of the convictions; see Gregory,
Terror
, 265. For the 123,421
death sentences, see Nikol’s’kyi,
Represyvna
, 402; at 340 are the national proportions of those arrested during 1937-1938 in Soviet Ukraine: Ukrainians 53.2 percent (78.2 percent of population), Russians 7.7 percent (11.3 percent of population), Jews 2.6 percent (5.2 percent of population), Poles 18.9 percent (1.5 percent of population), and Germans 10.2 percent (1.4 percent of population).
43
Khlevniuk, “Party and NKVD,” 23, 28; Binner, “Massenmord,” 591-593.
Khlevniuk, “Party and NKVD,” 23, 28; Binner, “Massenmord,” 591-593.
44
On the proportions of ranking officers, see Petrov,
Kto rukovodil
, 475; and Gregory,
Terror
, 63. The representation of Jews in summer 1936 was still higher at the rank of general (fifty-four percent) and in the central apparatus of the NKVD in Moscow (sixty-four percent) and among ranking officers in Soviet Ukraine (sixty-seven percent). See Naumov,
Bor’ba
, 119, for the first two; Zolotar’ov, “Nachalnyts’kyi,” 326-331, for the third. Latvians, Germans, and Poles disappeared entirely from the top ranks of the NKVD during the Great Terror. The Pole Stanisław Redens, for example, was the head of the Moscow NKVD and, as such, had signed the orders to execute 20,761 people in the Terror. He himself was arrested and later executed as a Polish nationalist.
On the proportions of ranking officers, see Petrov,
Kto rukovodil
, 475; and Gregory,
Terror
, 63. The representation of Jews in summer 1936 was still higher at the rank of general (fifty-four percent) and in the central apparatus of the NKVD in Moscow (sixty-four percent) and among ranking officers in Soviet Ukraine (sixty-seven percent). See Naumov,
Bor’ba
, 119, for the first two; Zolotar’ov, “Nachalnyts’kyi,” 326-331, for the third. Latvians, Germans, and Poles disappeared entirely from the top ranks of the NKVD during the Great Terror. The Pole Stanisław Redens, for example, was the head of the Moscow NKVD and, as such, had signed the orders to execute 20,761 people in the Terror. He himself was arrested and later executed as a Polish nationalist.
49
On the expulsion, see Tomaszewski,
Preludium
, 5, 139, passim. See also Longerich,
Politik der Vernichtung
, 193-204; and Kershaw,
Hitler
, 459, 472.
On the expulsion, see Tomaszewski,
Preludium
, 5, 139, passim. See also Longerich,
Politik der Vernichtung
, 193-204; and Kershaw,
Hitler
, 459, 472.
51
On 12 November 1938, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 4.
On 12 November 1938, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 4.
52
On Madagascar, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 4, 8. On the Revisionists, see Arens, “Jewish Military,” 205; and Spektor, “Żydzi wołyńscy,” 539.
On Madagascar, see Polian, “Schriftwechsel,” 4, 8. On the Revisionists, see Arens, “Jewish Military,” 205; and Spektor, “Żydzi wołyńscy,” 539.
53
On Polish-German relations, see Roos,
Polen
, 253, 396; Kershaw,
Hitler
, 475; and Weinberg,
Foreign Policy
, 20, 404, 484.
On Polish-German relations, see Roos,
Polen
, 253, 396; Kershaw,
Hitler
, 475; and Weinberg,
Foreign Policy
, 20, 404, 484.
56
See Haslam,
Collective Security
, 90, 153. On Litvinov, see Herf,
Jewish Enemy
, 104; and Orwell,
Orwell and Politics
, 78.
See Haslam,
Collective Security
, 90, 153. On Litvinov, see Herf,
Jewish Enemy
, 104; and Orwell,
Orwell and Politics
, 78.
58
Haslam,
Collective Security
, 227. Quotation: Weinberg,
World at Arms
, 25. I have not discussed Koestler’s experiences in Spain, which coincided with the imprisonment of his friend Weissberg in the USSR; see
God That Failed
, 75-80.
Haslam,
Collective Security
, 227. Quotation: Weinberg,
World at Arms
, 25. I have not discussed Koestler’s experiences in Spain, which coincided with the imprisonment of his friend Weissberg in the USSR; see
God That Failed
, 75-80.
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