The United Nations Security Council and War:The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 (158 page)

³
Cameron Hume,
The United Nations, Iran and Iraq: How Peacemaking Changed
(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994), 188.

⁴
James A. Baker,
The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War and Peace, 1989—1992
(New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 16.

⁵
Only Iraq, Libya, and the PLO voted against the proposal. Importantly, Syria as well as Egypt joined in military action against Iraq in early 1991.

⁶
Top ten troop contributions were: USA (550,000); Saudi Arabia (118,000); Turkey (100,000); UK (43,000); Egypt (40,000); UAE (40,000); Oman (25,500); France (18,000); Syria (17,000); Kuwait (11,000). The US flew 86% of all sorties during the campaign and provided the vast bulk of all military hardware: on this latter point see Anthony H. Cordesman,
U.S. Forces in the Middle East: Resources and Capabilities
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 62–3.

⁷
George Bush and Brent Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 303.

⁸
Ibid.

⁹
SC Res. 669 of 24 Sep. 1990. The Council later established the UN Compensation Commission (UNCC) to deal with complaints arising from the Iraq-Kuwait conflict (SC Res. 692 of 20 May 1991). It awarded US $52.5 billion in compensation. See generally Andrea Gattini, ‘The UN Compensation Commission: Old Rules, New Procedures on War Reparations’,
European Journal of International Law
13, no. 1 (2002), 161–81.

¹⁰
See Hume,
The United Nations
, 207–8.

¹¹
SC Res. 673 of 24 Oct. 1990.

¹²
Abraham D. Sofaer, ‘Asking the U.N. is Asking for Trouble’,
Wall Street Journal
, Editorial, 5 Nov. 1990, A14.

¹³
George H. W. Bush, ‘Address before the 45th Session of the United Nations General Assembly in New York, New York’, 1 Oct. 1990.

¹⁴
Bush and Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
, 399–400.

¹⁵
Persian Gulf War Resolution
, House Joint Resolution 77, 12 Jan. 1991.

¹⁶
John Goshko, ‘U.N. Chief Issues Plea as Peace Efforts Fail; Opposition Scuttles France’s Proposal’,
Washington Post
, 16 Jan. 1991, A6.

¹⁷
Bush and Scowcroft,
A World Transformed
, 463–4. See also Baker,
The Politics of Diplomacy
, 435–8.

¹⁸
Interview by Don Imus with George H. W. Bush, 1 Sep. 2004,
MSNBC.

¹⁹
SC Res. 687 of 3 Apr. 1991.

²⁰
For further discussion of this distinction, see James Cockayne and David Malone, ‘The UN Security Council: 10 Lessons from Iraq on Regulation and Accountability’,
Journal of International Law and International Relations
2, no. 2 (2006), 1–24.

²¹
Nicholas J. Wheeler,
Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 141.

²²
Leonard Doyle, Steve Boggan, and Safa Haeri, ‘Security Council abandons Kurds to their fate with non intervention policy’,
Independent
, 4 Apr. 1991, 1.

²³
See Simon Chesterman,
Just War or Just Peace? Humanitarian Intervention and International Law
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 132.

²⁴
Cuba, Yemen, and Zimbabwe voted against; China and India abstained.

²⁵
J. E. Stromseth, ‘Iraq’ in L. E. Damrosch, (ed.),
Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts
(New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993), 81; Wheeler,
Saving Strangers
, 141–6.

²⁶
See especially
A. Aust, Legal Counsellor, FCO, statement before HC Foreign Affairs Committee
, 2 Dec. 1992, in ‘United Kingdom Materials on International Law 1992’in
British Yearbook of International Law
LXIII, 827.

²⁷
James Bone, ‘UN Envoy Pours Cold Water on Kurd Refugee Plan’,
The Times
, 10 Apr. 1991.

²⁸
Doyle, Leonard, ‘West and UN Shamed into Aiding the Kurds’,
Independent
, 18 Apr. 1991.

²⁹
Wheeler,
Saving Strangers
, 149–50.

³⁰
Operation Provide Comfort After Action Report (U)
, Headquarters United States European Command/ECJ3, 29 Jan. 1992.

³¹
Barton Gellman, ‘Last Coalition Units Are Leaving Iraq; Ultimatums Issued to Protect Kurds’,
Washington Post
, 13 July 1991, Ai; D. Hiro,
Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War
(London: HarperCollins, 1992), 416–17.

³²
Following the US withdrawal, a Western rapid reaction force (‘Operation Poised Hammer’) was stationed at the Incirlik airbase in Turkey, as a security guarantee for the Kurds.

³³
See Michael Ignatieff, ‘State-failure and nation-building’, in J. L. Holzgrefe and Robert O. Keohane (eds.),
Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal and Political Dilemmas
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 308.

³⁴
The Fall of Srebrenica
, UN doc. A/54/549 of 15 Nov. 1999.

³⁵
Report on humanitarian needs in Iraq in the immediate post-crisis environment by a mission to the area led by the Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, 10–17 March V)91, UN
doc. S/22366 of 20 Mar. 1991, para. 8.

³⁶
See also SC Res. 712 of 19 Sep. 1991.

³⁷
SC Res. 706 of 15 Aug. 1991, para. 3. See also SC Res. 778 of 2 Oct. 1992, para. 5(c)(ii).

³⁸
Madeleine K. Albright, ‘A Humanitarian Exception to the Iraqi Sanctions’, US Department of State Dispatch 6/17, 24 Apr. 1995; James Traub, ‘Off target’,
The New Republic
232/6 (2005).

³⁹
Sarah Graham-Brown,
Sanctioning Saddam: The Politics of Intervention in Iraq
(London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), 80.

⁴⁰
SC Res. 986 of 14 Apr. 1995.

⁴¹
UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/RES/1997/35 of 28 Aug. 1997; David Cortright and George Lopez, ‘Reforming Sanctions’, in David M. Malone, (ed.),
The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century
(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004).

⁴²
SC Res. 1538 of 21 Apr. 2004; and Independent Inquiry Committee,
Report on the Management of the Oil-for-Food Programme
, I, 4.

⁴³
Oil-For-Food Facts, ‘Oil-For-Food: FAQ’,
www.oilforfoodfacts.com/faq.aspx
See also Independent Inquiry Committee into the United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme,
The Impact of the Oil-for-Food Programme on the Iraqi People: Report of an Independent Working Group established by the Independent Inquiry Committee
(7 Sep. 2005), 177, 179.

⁴⁴
Oil-for-Food Facts, ‘Oil-For-Food: FAQ’.

⁴⁵
See for example David Cortright et al.,
Political Gain and Civilian Pain: Humanitarian Impacts of Economic Sanctions
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1997).

⁴⁶
‘Iraq Liberation Act of 1998’, H.R. 4655, 31 Oct. 1998.

⁴⁷
George A. Lopez and David Cortright, ‘Containing Iraq: Sanctions Worked’,
Foreign Affairs
83, no. 4 (2004), 97.

⁴⁸
James Cockayne and David Malone, ‘Creeping Unilateralism: How Operation Provide Comfort and the No-Fly Zones in 1991 and 1992 Paved the Way for the Iraq Crisis of 2003’,
Security Dialogue
37, no. 1 (Mar. 2006), 123–41.

⁴⁹
‘Letter to Congressional Leaders reporting on Iraq’s Compliance with UN SCRs’,
Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents
29 (19 Jan. 1993), 67.

⁵⁰
David Von Drehle and R. Jeffrey Smith, ‘U.S. Strikes Iraq for Plot to Kill Bush’,
Washington Post
, 27 June 1993, A1; see also Alan D. Surchin, ‘Terror and the Law: The Unilateral Use of Force and the June 1993 Bombing of Baghdad’,
Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law
5 (1995), 459.

⁵¹
SC Res. 949 of 15 Oct. 1994.

⁵²
Barbara Crossette, ‘U.N. Council Unanimous In Condemning Iraq Move’,
New York Times
, 17 Oct. 1994, 10.

⁵³
Richard Butler,
Talk
(Sep. 1999), 198.

⁵⁴
SC Res. 487 of 19 June 1981.

⁵⁵
‘Vice President Honors Veterans of Korean War’,
White House Office of the Press Secretary
, 29 Aug. 2002.

⁵⁶
David M. Malone, ‘Iraq: No Easy Response to the Greatest Threat’,
American Journal of International Law
95, no. 1 (2001), 235–45.

⁵⁷
SC Res. 715 of 11 Oct. 1991.

⁵⁸
Graham-Brown,
Sanctioning Saddam
, 84; see also UN doc. S/1995/864 of 11 Oct. 1995.

⁵⁹
SC Res. 1051 of 27 Mar. 1996, and SC Res. 1060 of 12 June 1996.

⁶⁰
Rolf Ekéus interview, 28 May 2005.

⁶¹
SC Res. 1137 of 12 Nov. 1997.

⁶²
John M. Goshko, ‘Security Council Debate Reflects Continued Split on Iraq’,
Washington Post
, 19 Dec. 1997, A20.

⁶³
Martin Kettle, ‘Iraq crisis: The debate: White House scores a PR own goal’,
Guardian
, 19 Feb. 1998, 13.

⁶⁴
Dilip Hiro,
Iraq: In the Eye of the Storm
(New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2002), 116.

⁶⁵
UN doc. S/1998/166 of 25 Feb. 1998.

⁶⁶
John M. Goshko, ‘U.S. Says Questions Remain on Iraq Pact’,
Washington Post
, 25 Feb. 1998, A01.

⁶⁷
‘Reversing Course on Iraq’,
Washington Post
, Editorial, 26 Feb. 1998, A14.

⁶⁸
Tom Clancy with Tony Zinni and Tony Koltz,
Battle Ready
(New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 2004).

⁶⁹
Tim Weiner, ‘U.S. Long View on Iraq: Patience in Containing the Ever-Deadlier Hussein’,
New York Times
, 3 Jan. 1999, 10.

⁷⁰
Confidential interviews in Washington, Jan. 1999. See David M. Malone ‘Goodbye UNSCOM: A Sad Tale in UN-US Relations’,
Security Dialogue
30, no. 4 (Dec. 1999), 393–411.

⁷¹
Letter dated 27 Mar. 1999 from the Chairman of the panels established pursuant to the note by the President of the Security Council of 30 Jan. 1999 (S/1999/100) addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN doc. S/1999/356 of 30 Mar. 1999.

⁷²
Richard Butler,
The Greatest Threat: Iraq, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the Crisis of Global Security
(New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 200.

⁷³
SC Res. 1284 of 17 Dec. 1999.

⁷⁴
Teixeira da Silva, ‘Weapons of Mass Destruction’, in Malone,
The United Nations Security Council
, 213; and Hans Blix,
Disarming Iraq: The Search for Weapons of Mass Destruction
(New York: Pantheon, 2004), 59.

⁷⁵
Condoleezza Rice, ‘Campaign 2000: Promoting the National Interest’,
Foreign Affairs
79, no. 1 (2000), 45–62.

⁷⁶
Richard A. Clarke, interview with Leslie Stahl,
60 Minutes
, CBS, 21 Mar. 2004.

⁷⁷
Jonathan S. Landay, Warren P. Strobel, and John Walcott, ‘Doubts Cast on Efforts to Link Saddam and Al-Qaeda’,
Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service
, 3 Mar. 2004.

⁷⁸
Bob Woodward,
Plan of Attack
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 8, 38.

⁷⁹
‘President Delivers State of the Union Address’,
White House Office of the Press Secretary
, 29 Jan. 2002.

⁸⁰
President of the United States,
The National Security Strategy of the United States of America
(Washington, DC: The White House, 2002), 15.

⁸¹
General Assembly official records, 57th session: 2nd plenary meeting, 8.

⁸²
Karen DeYoung, ‘Bush to Challenge U.N. on Iraqi Threat; President Will Demand Action Soon on Hussein’,
Washington Post
, 11 Sep. 2002, A13.

⁸³
Jonathan Freedland, ‘Patten lays into Bush’s America: Fury at president’s “axis of evil” speech’,
Guardian
, 9 Feb. 2002, 1.

⁸⁴
Steven Erlanger, ‘Stance on Bush Policy Could Swing Election in Germany’,
New York Times
, 9 Sep. 2002, 3. For analysis, see Anja Dalgaard-Nielsen, ‘Gulf War: The German Resistance’,
Survival
45, no. 1 (2003).

⁸⁵
‘French Leader Offers America Both Friendship and Criticism’,
New York Times
, 9 Sep. 2002, 9.

⁸⁶
UK Prime Minister Tony Blair,
NBC TV News
, 3 Apr. 2002.

⁸⁷
‘The secret Downing Street memo’,
Sunday Times
, 1 May 2005.

⁸⁸
Deputy Secretary Wolfowitz Interview with Sam Tannenhaus,
Vanity Fair
, 9 May 2003.

⁸⁹
Mark Danner, ‘The Secret Way to War’,
New York Review of Books
52, no. 10, 9 June 2005.

⁹⁰
Woodward,
Plan of Attack
, 178; Christopher Bluth, ‘The British road to war: Blair, Bush and the decision to invade Iraq’,
International Affairs
80, no. 5 (2004), 879.