The Parthenon Enigma (73 page)

62.
As pointed out by Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 287, who also notes that stone fragments of what looks to be a winged monster with snaky body have been found on Samos, perhaps providing an iconographic parallel to the Hekatompedon’s Bluebeard Monster/Typhon. See B. Freyer-Schauenburg,
Bildwerke der archaischen Zeit und des strengen Stils
, Samos 11 (Bonn: Rudolf Habelt, 1974), nos. 111–12, 191n84. Ridgway also suggests that the marble relief felines were attached as antae decorations in the Eastern tradition of guardian figures at the doors. M. Korres has suggested that these relief felines may have been placed along the face of the architrave, at the corners of the building, in an arrangement similar to that seen on the Archaic temple at Didyma (personal communication with M. Korres).

63.
Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 115–16.

64.
See the forthcoming article by N. L. Klein, “Topography of the Athenian Acropolis Before Pericles: The Evidence of the Small Limestone Buildings,” in which she proposes modifications to the traditional dating. Klein places Building A around 560–550
B.C.
; Buildings B and C in the second half of the sixth century; and Buildings D and E in the early fifth century. See also Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 287–91; Bancroft, “Problems Concerning the Archaic Acropolis,” 46–76; N. Bookidis, “A Study of the Use and Geographical Distribution of Architectural Sculpture in the Archaic Period (Greece, East Greece, and Magna Graecia)” (Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1967), 22–33.

65.
Acropolis no. 1. For Hydra, see Ogden,
Drakon
, 26–28. For poros pediment, see N. L. Klein, “A Reconstruction of the Small Poros Buildings on the Athenian Acropolis,”
AJA
95 (1991): 335 (abstract); Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 287–88; W. H. Schuchhardt, “Archaische Bauten auf der Akropolis von Athen,”
AA
78 (1963): 812, figs. 13–44. There is a second small pediment, Acropolis Museum no. 2, painted in deep red (and therefore nicknamed the “Red Triton Pediment”) that similarly shows Herakles fighting the Triton; see Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 291. For Triton, see Ogden,
Drakon
, 119, 131, 134–35.

66.
In Euripides,
Children of Herakles
87, 125, Iolaos is presented not as the nephew of Herakles but as a very close friend. According to Aristotle, at the tomb of Iolaos at Thebes, homosexual lovers pledged their fidelity to one another, while Iolaos guaranteed their oaths and punished unfaithful lovers. See J. Davidson,
The Greeks and Greek Love: A Radical Reappraisal of Homosexuality in Ancient Greece
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007), 354–56; Plutarch,
Life of Pelopidas
18.5.

67.
J. P. A. van der Vin, “Coins in Athens During the Time of Peisistratos,” in
Peisistratos and the Tyranny: A Reappraisal of the Evidence
, ed. H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg (Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 2000), 147–53, argues that
Wappenmünzen
, or heraldic coinage, date from the period of Peisistratos and a little later (ca. 550–515
B.C.
). See J. H. Kroll, “From Wappenmünzen to Gorgoneia to Owls,”
American Numismatic Society Museum Notes
26 (1981): 10–15, and his 1993 monograph,
The Greek Coins
, where Kroll states, “Athenian numismatics begins with the anepigraphic Wappenmünzen (heraldic coins), a uniface coinage with changing obverse types” (5). See also Kroll and Waggoner, “Dating the Earliest Coins of Athens, Corinth, and Aegina,” 331–33; Lavelle,
Fame, Money, and Power
, 188.

68.
Peisistratos is also said to have set up the Altar of the Twelve Gods within the Agora, a monument regarded as the physical center of Athens from which all distances were measured. See Herodotos,
Histories
2.7; Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
6.54;
IG
II
²
2640. For discussion see Camp,
Athenian Agora
, 41–42; Camp, “Before Democracy,” 10–11; Camp,
Archaeology of Athens
, 32–35; Boersma,
Athenian Building Policy
, 15–16, 20–21; L. M. Gadberry, “The Sanctuary of the Twelve Gods in the Athenian Agora: A Revised View,”
Hesperia
61 (1992): 447–89.

69.
Herodotos,
Histories
1.60.2–5; W. R. Connor, “Tribes, Festivals, and Processions,”
JHS
107 (1987): 40–50.

70.
Boardman, “Herakles, Peisistratos, and Sons,” 62; J. Boardman, “Herakles, Peisistratos, and the Unconvinced,”
JHS
109 (1989): 158–59; G. Ferrari, “Heracles, Pisistratus, and the Panathenaea,”
Métis
9–10 (1994–1995): 219–26.

71.
Herodotos,
Histories
5.71; Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
1.126. See D. Harris-Cline, “Archaic Athens and the Topography of the Kylon Affair,”
BSA
94 (1999): 309–20; D. Nakassis, “Athens, Kylon, and the Dipolieia,” in
GRBS
51 (2011): 527–36.

72.
Plutarch,
Life of Solon
12, embellishes the story with a wonderful twist which has Kylon and his men tying a yellow string around the cult statue to keep themselves attached to Athena’s protective powers as they make their way down the Acropolis. The thread snaps just as they pass the altars of the “Accursed Goddesses,” and so the archons feel free to kill the escaped hostages on the spot.

73.
Shapiro,
Art and Cult Under the Tyrants
, 14–15.

74.
Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
6.54, says that “they greatly improved the appearance of their city.” See Lavelle,
Fame, Money, and Power
.

75.
Korres has recently shown that work might have recommenced on the temple at the time of the orator Lykourgos. M. Korres and C. Bouras, eds.,
Athens: From the Classical Period to the Present Day
(New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Press, 2003), 153. In 174
B.C.
, King Antiochos IV Epiphanes commissioned the Roman architect Cossutius to complete the giant dipteral temple in the Corinthian order, but the project was later abandoned. During his siege of Athens in 86
B.C.
, Sulla looted some of the Olympieon’s columns. Work did not resume on the temple until the reign of Hadrian when it was completed and a gold and ivory statue of Zeus was installed within. See Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.18.6. R. Tölle-Kastenbein,
Das Olympieion in Athen
(Cologne: Böhlau, 1994); Camp,
Archaeology of Athens
, 173–76, 199–201; R. E. Wycherley,
Stones of Athens
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978).

76.
Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
2.20.2; Aristotle,
Politics
1311a; Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.23.1–2. When Harmodios’s sister was invited, then rejected, as basket-bearer at the festival, the lovers decided to kill the Peisistratids, succeeding only in the murder of Harmodios.

77.
Ober,
Democracy and Knowledge
, 138–39.

78.
Ibid., 12, defines
demokratia
as “the capacity [of the people, or demos] to act in order to effect change.”

79.
See J. Ober,
Athenian Legacies: Essays on the Politics of Going on Together
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), 36–42, for a helpful summary.

80.
Scholia on Aristophanes,
Knights
566a (II), repeated by
Suda
, s.v. πέπλος. For
Gigantomachy in Attic vase painting, see Shapiro,
Art and Cult Under the Tyrants
, 28, 38–40, 42; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 35–38; T. H. Carpenter,
Art and Myth in Ancient Greece
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1991), 74; Vian,
La guerre des géants
, 246; M. B. Moore, “Lydos and the Gigantomachy,”
AJA
83 (1979): 79–99.

81.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
8.47.1.

82.
Suda
, s.v. Γιγαντιαί.

83.
Apollodoros,
Library
1.35; Euripides,
Ion
209–11; Euripides,
Herakles
908; Euripides,
Cyklops
5–8; Kallimachos,
Fragmenta
382 (from Choerobus, ca. third century
B.C.
).

84.
Scholars had long dated the temple to around 520
B.C.
under the regime of the Peisistratids, but the building has now been persuasively down dated to the early years of Kleisthenes’s leadership, certainly after 508
B.C.
See Childs, “Date of the Old Temple of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis”; Korres, “History of the Acropolis Monuments,” 38–39; K. Stähler, “Zur Rekonstruktion und Datierung des Gigantomachiegiebels von der Akropolis,” in
Antike und Universalgeschichte: Festschrift Hans Erich Stier
(Münster, 1972), 88–91; Stewart, “Persian and Carthaginian Invasions of 480
B.C.E.
,” 377–412 and 581–615; Kissas,
Archaische Architektur der Athener Akropolis
. Against this view, see Croissant, “Observations sur la date et le style du fronton de la gigantomachie”; Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 291–95; Santi,
I frontoni arcaici dell’Acropoli di Atene
, reviewed by Stewart,
AJA
116 (2012),
www.ajaonline.org/sites/default/files/1162_Stewart.pdf
.

85.
Acropolis nos. 631 A–C (Giants and Athena) and Acropolis nos. 6454 and 15244 (horses). This pediment has been reconstructed by M. Moore, “The Central Group in the Gigantomachy of the Old Athena Temple on the Acropolis,”
AJA
99 (1995): 633–69, with a full chariot at its center, transporting Zeus and, possibly, Herakles into battle while Athena and other gods fight Giants at either side, a reconstruction rejected by Santi,
I frontoni arcaici dell’Acropoli di Atene
, and Croissant, “Observations sur la date et le style du fronton de la gigantomachie.” See Stewart,
AJA
116 (2012),
www.ajaonline.org/sites/default/files/1162_Stewart.pdf
. For reconstructions of pedimental compositions see Beyer, “Die Reliefgiebel des alten Athena-Tempels der Akropolis”; H. Schrader,
Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis
(Frankfurt: V. Klostermann, 1939), 345–86. For Athena in the Gigantomachy in Greek iconography, see
LIMC
2, s.v. “Athena,” nos. 381–404.

86.
See Dörpfeld, “Parthenon I, II und III”; Childs, “Date of the Old Temple of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis,” 1; G. Gruben, “Die Tempel der Akropolis,”
Boreas
1 (1978): 28–31.

87.
Lion’s-head waterspout, Acropolis nos. 69 and 70; Nike akroterion, Acropolis no. 694. See Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 151–52, for discussion of akroterion; M. Brouskari,
The Acropolis Museum
(Athens: Commercial Bank of Greece, 1974), 58.

88.
Charioteer, Acropolis no. 1342; Hermes, Acropolis no. 1343. See Ridgway,
Prayers in Stone
, 199; Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 395–97.

89.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.26.6; Athenagoras,
Embassy for the Christians
17.

90.
Mansfield, “Robe of Athena,” 138–39, 185–88.

91.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.26.5; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 122–23.

92.
They were first identified as belonging to the megaron of the Mycenaean palace by S. Iakovidis,
He Mykenaïke akropolis ton Athenon
(Athens: Panepistemion Philosophike Schole, 1962), 63–65, but later down dated by C. Nylander to the seventh century
B.C.
; see Nylander, “Die sog. mykenischen Siulenbasen auf der Akropolis in Athens,”
OpAth
4 (1962): 31–77. See also Korres, “Athenian Classical Architecture,” who points out that one of these column bases had been moved out of
situ
already in the late nineteenth century. See also Glowacki, “Acropolis of Athens Before 566
B.C.
,” 82.

93.
Homer,
Iliad
2.546–51.

94. Mycenae: N. L. Klein, “Excavation of the Greek Temples at Mycenae by the British School at Athens,”
BSA
92 (1997): 247–322; N. L. Klein, “A New Study of the Archaic and Hellenistic Temples at Mycenae,”
AJA
97 (1993): 336–37 (abstract); B. E. French,
Mycenae: Agamemnon’s Capital
(Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2002), 135–38. Tiryns: E.-L. Schwandner, “Archaische Spolien aus Tiryns 1982/83,”
AA
103 (1987): 268–84; Antonaccio,
Archaeology of Ancestors
, 147–97. Athens: Glowacki, “Acropolis of Athens Before 566
B.C.
,” 80.

95.
National Archaeological Museum 13050, now in the Acropolis Museum. See Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 97–98; E. Touloupa, “Une Gorgone en bronze de l’Acropole,”
BCH
93 (1969): 862–64; Ridgway,
Archaic Style
, 305. For a discussion of a painted metope fragment that might also belong to this shrine, as well as associated terra-cotta members, see Glowacki, “Acropolis of Athens Before 566
B.C.
,” 80.

96.
Korres, “Athenian Classical Architecture,” 9; Korres, “Die Athena-Tempel auf der Akropolis,”; Dörpfeld, “Parthenon I, II und III”; Dinsmoor, “Older Parthenon, Additional Notes.”

97.
Dinsmoor, “Date of the Older Parthenon”; Miles, “Lapis Primus and the Older Parthenon,” 663; for an overview, see Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 105–35; Kissas,
Archaische Architektur der Athener Akropolis
, 99–110.

98.
Plutarch,
Life of Theseus
35.