The Parthenon Enigma (76 page)

67.
Korres, “Der Plan des Parthenon.”

68.
Barletta, “Architecture and Architects of the Classical Parthenon,” 88–95.

69.
See the discussion of the Parthenon west metopes, with emphasis on the significance of victorious Amazons and dead Greeks, in N. Arrington’s forthcoming book
Ashes, Images, and Memories: The Presence of the War Dead in Fifth-Century Athens
.

70.
Homeric Hymn to Athena
, 9–16. Translation: West,
Homeric Hymns
, 211.

71.
For Helios and Selene as shown on the Parthenon, on the base of the Athena Parthenos statue, and on the base of the cult statue of Zeus at Olympia (Pausanias,
Description of Greece
5.11.8), see Ehrhardt, “Zu Darstellung und Deutung des Gestirngötterpaares am Parthenon.” See also Marcadé, “Hélios au Parthenon”; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 177–79; Palagia,
Pediments
, 18; Leipen,
Athena Parthenos
, 23–24. W. Dörpfeld, “Der Tempel von Sounion,”
AM
9:336.

72.
Homeric Hymn to Athena
, 1–8. Translation: West,
Homeric Hymns
, 211.

73.
See Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 177–79; Palagia,
Pediments
, 18–39. A Roman marble
puteal
(water wellhead) in the Madrid Archaeological Museum (2691) is decorated with a sculptured relief showing similar iconography, reproduced in Palagia,
Pediments
, 18, fig. 8. For iconography of the Birth of Athena, see
LIMC
2, s.v. “Athena,” nos. 343–373.

74.
For a comprehensive summary of interpretations of these figures, see Palagia,
Pediments
, app., 60, 18–39.

75.
For sculptures showing women in the birthing position with midwives assisting from behind, see, among many Cypriot examples, a limestone sculpture (said to be from Golgoi) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art 74.51.2698; V. Karageorghis,
Ancient Art from Cyprus: The Cesnola Collection
(New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000), 262n424. Similar figures carved on Attic grave stelai include: Paris, Louvre Museum MA 7991; Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Art Museums, Sackler Art Museum 1905.8; Athens, Kerameikos Museum P 290; Athens, National Archaeological Museum 749; Athens, Piraeus Museum 21. Similar figures on marble funerary lekythoi include: Paris, Louvre Museum MA 3115; Athens, National Archaeological Museum 1055; Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek 2564. I am indebted to Viktoria Räuchle for these references and look forward to her forthcoming doctoral dissertation on motherhood: “Zwischen Norm und Natur: Bildliche und schriftliche Konzepte von Mutterschaft im Athen des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr.”

76.
For Eileithyai, see
LIMC
3, s.v. “Eileithyia,” nos. 1–49, in Birth of Athena scenes. For Metis see L. Raphals,
Knowing Words: Wisdom and Cunning in the Classical Tradi- tions of China and Greece
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993); M. Detienne and J.-P. Vernant,
Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society
, trans. J. Lloyd (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1978).

77.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.24.5; Fuchs, “Zur Rekonstruktion des
Poseidon im Parthenon-Westgiebel”; Spaeth, “Athenians and Eleusinians,” 333–36, 341–43; Palagia,
Pediments
, 40–59; Palagia, “Fire from Heaven,” 244–50; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 174–77.

78.
E. Simon, “Die Mittelgruppe im Westgiebel des Parthenon,” in
Tainia: Festschrift für Roland Hampe
, ed. H. Cahn and E. Simon (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1980), 239–55. A vase from Pella (Pella Archaeological Museum 80.514) shows a similar scene: the thunderbolt of Zeus is shown between Athena and Poseidon, signaling his intervention/arbitrations. See also an Attic hydria in St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum, P 1872.130, from Kerch, ca. 360–350
B.C.
, which shows Athena and Poseidon on either side of an olive tree; B. Cohen,
The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases
(Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2008), 339–41.

79.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.24.5; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 174–77; Palagia,
Pediments
, 40–59; Palagia, “Fire from Heaven,” 244, 250; Spaeth, “Athenians and Eleusinians,” 333–34; Fuchs, “Zur Rekonstruktion des Poseidon im Parthenon-Westgiebel.”

80.
St. Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum, P 1872.130, see note 78, above.

81.
Herodotos,
Histories
8.55, tells of Athena’s victory in the contest, a story retold in greater detail by Apollodoros,
Library
3.14.1. See Parker, “Myths of Early Athens,” 198n49; Isokrates,
Panathenaikos
193; scholia on Aelius Aristides,
Panathenaic Oration
140 (Lenz and Behr) = Dindorf, 3.58–59 = Jebb 106.

82.
Apollodoros,
Library
3.14.1; Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.27.2.

83.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.26.6; Strabo, writing in the first century
A.D.
, quotes the words of Hegesias: “I see the Acropolis and the mark of the huge trident there.”
Geography
9.1.16. Translation: H. L. Jones,
The Geography of Strabo
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1924), 261.

84.
Lesk, “Erechtheion and Its Reception,” 161.

85.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.26.5. Translation: W. H. S. Jones, Pausanias,
Description of Greece
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1918), 137.

86.
A. Murray,
The Sculptures of the Parthenon
(London: John Murray, 1903), 26–27.

87.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
5.10.7.

88.
Palagia gives a wonderfully helpful chart of all the various interpretations and a comprehensive overview of the scholarship in her
Pediments
, app., 61 and 40–59.

89.
Advanced by Barbette Spaeth, “Athenians and Eleusinians,” 338–60. See also L. Weidauer, “Eumolpos und Athen,”
AA
100 (1985): 209–10; L. Weidauer and I. Krauskopf, “Urkönige in Athen und Eleusis: Neues zur ‘Kekrops’—Gruppe des Parthenonwestgiebels,”
JdI
107 (1992): 1–16.

90.
Spaeth, “Athenians and Eleusinians,” 339–41, 351–54.

91.
Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.38.3.

92.
These identifications are all laid out by Spaeth, “Athenians and Eleusinians,” 339ff.

93.
Plutarch,
Life of Perikles
12. Translation: R. Waterfield,
Plutarch: Greek Lives
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 155.

94.
Plutarch,
Life of Perikles
12.2. Translation: B. Perrin,
Plutarch’s Lives
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1916), 3:37.

95.
Translation: Waterfield,
Life of Perikles
, 156.

96.
Translation: Jowett,
Thucydides
, 6.

97.
On the self-assuredness of classical Athenian citizens, see M. R. Christ,
The Bad Citizen in Classical Athens
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2006); M. R. Christ,
The Limits of Altruism in Democratic Athens
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2012), with overview, 1–9; R. Balot,
Greed and Injustice in Classical Athens
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); J. Hesk,
Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

98. Translation: Jowett,
Thucydides
, 47–48.

99.
Sanders, “Beyond the Usual Suspects,” 152–53.

100.
Translation: Jowett,
Thucydides
, 127.

101.
Ibid., 128.

102.
Ibid., 129.

103.
Ibid., 127, 130.

104.
M. Faraguna, G. Oliver, and S. D. Lambert in
Clisthène et Lycurgue d’Athènes
, ed. V. Azoulay and P. Ismar (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2012), 67–86, 119–31, and 175–90; Habicht,
Athens from Alexander to Antony
, 22–27; Hurwit,
Athenian Acropolis
, 253–60; F. W. Mitchel,
Lycourgan Athens, 338–322
B.C.
(Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati, 1970); F. W. Mitchel, “Athens in the Age of Alexander,”
Greece and Rome
12 (1965): 189–204.

105.
Meineck, “Embodied Space.”

106.
Hintzen-Bohlen,
Die Kulturpolitik des Euboulos und des Lykurg
.

107.
See Humphreys,
Strangeness of Gods
, 77.

108.
Pseudo-Plutarch,
Lives of the Ten Orators, Lykourgos
843e–f.

109.
Ibid., 843c; Pausanias,
Description of Greece
1.8.2. Hintzen-Bohlen,
Die Kulturpolitik des Euboulos und des Lykurg
.

110.
For Perikles’s vision, see Thucydides,
Peloponnesian War
2.34–46; Humphreys,
Strangeness of Gods
, 120; N. Loraux,
The Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Classical City
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 144–45; S. Yoshitake, “Arete¯ and the Achievements of the War Dead: The Logic of Praise in the Athenian Funeral Oration,” in Pritchard,
War, Democracy, and Culture
, 359–77.

111.
Siewert, “Ephebic Oath,” 102–11.

112.
Humphreys,
Strangeness of Gods
, 103, 104; Steinbock, “A Lesson in Patriotism,” 294–99.

113.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
9–10. For compelling discussion of the case and its meaning, see Steinbock, “A Lesson in Patriotism”; Allen,
Why Plato Wrote
, 93; Ober,
Democracy and Knowledge
, 186.

114.
Habicht,
Athens from Alexander to Antony
, 27; Ober,
Democracy and Knowledge
, 186–90.

115.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
77. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 69, 71.

116.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
79. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 71, 73. For the importance of oaths in Greek antiquity, see A. Sommerstein and A. J. Bayliss, eds.,
Oath and State in Ancient Greece
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013); D. Lateiner, “Oaths: Theory and Practice in the Histories of Herodotus and Thucydides,” in
Thucydides and Herodotus
, ed. E. Foster and D. Lateiner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 154–84; A. Sommerstein and J. Fletcher, eds.,
Horkos: The Oath in Greek Society
(Exeter: Bristol Phoenix Press, 2007); S. G. Cole, “Oath Ritual and the Male Community at Athens,” in
Demokratia: A Conversation on Democracies, Ancient and Modern
, ed. J. Ober and C. Hedrick (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), 233–65; J. Plescia,
The Oath and Perjury in Ancient Greece
(Tallahassee: University of Florida Press, 1970).

117.
P. Siewert, “Der Eid von Plataiai,”
CR
, n.s., 25 (1975): 263–65. The authenticity of the oath has been questioned. See discussion in
chapter 5
.

118.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
81. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 73.

119.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
83. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 75.

120.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
84, 86. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 75, 77. See Steinbock, “A Lesson in Patriotism,” 282–90.

121. Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
98–101. Translation of section 100: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 87.

122.
Translation is my own, based on passages quoted in Lykourgos,
Against Leocrates
, and the fragments of Euripides’s
Erechtheus
, as given in the editon by R. Kannicht, 2004, which will be used throughout this book unless otherwise noted. The “F” appearing before line citations stands for “fragment” throughout.

123.
The oath of the daughters of Erechtheus manifests the quintessential “one for all and all for one” principle at work, known to modern audiences as the motto of the Three Musketeers: Athos, Porthos, and Aramis of Alexandre Dumas’s classic. A. Dumas,
Les trois mousquetaires
, was first serialized in March–July 1844. Following inundations across the Alps in the autumn of 1868, the slogan was used to marshal solidarity among the Swiss cantons. The German (“einer für alle, alle für einen”), the French (“un pour tous, tous pour un”), and the Italian (“uno per tutti, tutti per uno”) versions of the oath came to be associated with the foundational myths of Switzerland, emphasizing unity in the face of adversity. In 1902, the motto was inscribed in Latin, “unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno,” upon the cupola of the Federal Palace of Switzerland in Bern. See S. Summermatter, “ ‘Ein Zoll der Sympathie’—die Bewältigung der Überschwemmungen von 1868 mit Hilfe der eidgenössischen Spendensammlung,”
Blätter aus der Walliser Geschichte
37 (2005): 1–46, at 29, fig. 8.

124.
Isokrates,
Demonikos
13. Translation: D. C. Mirhady and Y. L. Too,
Isocrates I
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000).

125.
Lykourgos,
Against Leokrates
101. Translation: Burtt,
Minor Attic Orators, II
, 91.