The Modern Middle East (117 page)

al-Turabi, Hasan (b. 1932),
257
,
258

Turkey,
1
,
27
,
40
,
51–56
,
387
; Alexandretta,
51
; and Armenians,
27
,
28
,
53
,
410n60
; Baghdad Pact,
110
; birth of,
39
,
51–56
; constitutions,
27–28
,
242
,
243
,
411n61
; corporatism,
55
,
242–43
,
278
; cultural niche,
279
; democratization,
215
,
240
,
241–44
,
247
,
262
,
281
,
283
,
297
; economic development,
51
,
55
,
348
,
352
,
355
,
357
,
364
; and globalization,
383
; Greeks in,
28
,
53
; Gulf War effects,
194
; harem,
26
fig;
independence (1923),
28
,
53
,
56
,
69–70
; and Islam,
52
,
54
,
56
,
243–44
,
255
; Islamists,
259
,
261
; Israel alliances,
194
; Khomeini exile to,
147
; Konya and
Bursa,
12
; Kurds,
2
,
50
,
52
,
53
,
58
,
242
,
244–45
,
263
; loyal opposition,
54
; military,
53
,
240–44
,
247
,
263
,
283
,
348
; military coups,
240
,
242–44
,
283–84
; modernization,
51
,
53–56
,
66
,
242
; Mosul,
51
; motor vehicles,
397
; nationalism,
27–28
,
51–56
,
70
,
71–72
,
106
,
242
,
383
; national name,
52–53
,
70
; National Security Council (NSC),
242–43
,
247
,
283
; NATO,
110
,
111
; Ottomans,
20
,
22
,
23
,
28
,
47
,
51–53
; political opposition,
252–53
,
259
,
263
; political parties,
53–55
,
242–45
,
252–53
,
259
,
260
,
283–84
; quasi-democratic state,
215
,
240
,
241–44
,
247
,
263
; regional dominance,
194–97
; republicanism,
28
,
50
,
53–54
,
56
; revolutionism,
51
,
53
,
54
,
140
,
242
,
413n37
; Saljuqs,
20
,
22
; state formation,
27–28
,
38
,
39
,
51–56
; stateled social change,
54
,
384
; statism,
49
,
51
,
53
,
351
,
384
; Swiss Civil Code,
54
; Syrian border conflict,
111
,
112
; Turks as ethnic majority,
2
,
241
; urban populations,
408n14
; water,
400
,
401
,
402
; with West vs. communists,
95
.
See also
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal; Istanbul

Turkic tribes,
22
,
28

Turkmans, Sunni,
29

Turks: Turkey ethnic majority,
2
,
241
.
See also
Ottoman Empire; Turkey; Young Turks

ulama,
255–58
; Iran,
30
,
31
,
57–58
,
60
,
145
,
152–66
,
180
,
190
,
257
,
284
; Islamist,
156–63
,
255–58
,
262–63
; Morocco,
237
,
255
; Ottoman,
25–28
,
34
; political opposition,
152–66
,
255–58
,
262–64
; quietist,
256
.
See also
imams

Umar (634–44),
18

Umayyads,
18–19
,
20–21
,
33

umma,
16
; Medina,
15
,
16
; Muslim divisions over,
18
; Ottoman,
29
,
33–34
,
52
,
71
.
See also
imams;
ulama

unemployment,
141
,
261
,
266
,
272

Unified Leadership of the Uprising (ULU), Palestinian,
314
,
315
,
451n48

United Arab Emirates (UAE): Dubai skyscrapers,
375
fig;
economics,
181–82
,
352
,
369
; environmental awareness,
399
; and globalization,
383
; and Iraq,
181–82
,
184
; sultanistic state,
214
,
232
,
233
,
234

United Arab List, Arab Israeli political party,
245–46

United Arab Republic (UAR): Egypt-Syria union (1958–61),
72
,
98
,
107
,
108
,
109–10
,
111–13
; after Syria’s withdrawal (1961),
113
,
114
,
116
,
117

United Arab States,
114

United Nations: Ban Ki-moon,
342–43
; economic sanctions on Iraq,
199
; Emergency Forces (UNEF) on Egyptian-Israeli border,
118
; Iran-Iraq War cease-fire (Resolution 598),
178
,
181
,
431n37
; Iraq compliance (Resolution 1441),
204
; Iraq inspection teams,
188–89
,
203
; land for peace (Resolution 242),
125
,
132
,
326
; Libya,
99
,
295
; Operation Iron Cast casualties,
339
; Palestine nonmember observer status,
341
,
342
; and Palestinians in Israeli-Occupied Territories,
319
,
323
; Partition Plan (Resolution 181),
80–82
,
81
map,
84
,
418n37
; PLO legitimacy,
136
,
449n28
; PLO observer status,
136
; Quartet on the Middle East,
343
; Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA),
309
; Second Gulf War (Resolutions 660/662/674),
188
; Soviets in Iran,
143
; Suez Canal crisis,
96
; UN Emergency Force (UNEF),
96
,
118
; U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003),
204–5
; U.S. war on terrorism,
203
; U Thant,
118
; Yemeni civil war,
116

United States: Afghanistan Operation Enduring Freedom,
196–207
,
336
,
342
,
404
; aid to Israel,
131
,
197–98
,
432n60
,
433n61
; and Al-Aqsa
intifada,
336
; anti-Americanism in Middle East,
186
,
196–99
,
207–8
; attacks abroad on,
195
,
200
; Baghdad Pact,
110
; Balfour Declaration and,
42–43
; George W. Bush,
190
,
195
,
200–205
,
336–37
,
342
,
433n61
; George H. Bush,
184
,
190
,
197
,
201–2
; Camp David Accords,
125
,
197
,
325–27
,
331–34
,
336–37
; Carter,
134
,
150
,
157–60
,
197
,
326
; Cold War,
110–11
,
146
,
170
,
197
,
207
; democracy,
240
; dual containment policy,
191
,
199
,
201
; Eisenhower,
110–11
,
197
; graffiti on embassy in Egypt (September 2012),
294
fig;
and Hamas,
339
; and human rights abuses,
150
,
198
,
318
; and Iran in 1930s,
61
; Iran-Contra Affair,
161
,
428n57
; Iranian hostage crisis (1979–81),
155
,
157–61
,
171
,
173
,
176
,
197
,
428nn50
,
51
; Iranian mutual military agreement (1959),
173
; and Iranian shah,
144–46
,
157–58
,
198
,
427n34
; Iran-Iraq War,
180
,
181
; Iran’s continuing tensions with,
167
,
404
; Iran’s Khatami and,
165
; and Iraqi Kurds,
188
; Iraq occupation,
189
,
201–7
,
337
,
342
,
406
; Jews,
42
,
197–98
,
303
; and Lebanese civil war,
248–49
; Madrid Peace Conference (1991),
327
; Middle East policies,
110–11
,
170
,
172
,
191
,
196–207
; military presence in Middle East and Central Asia,
198
,
201
,
203
; and Nasser’s Egypt,
95
,
96
,
111
; national security strategy of prevention and preemption,
200
; New World Order,
172
,
191
; 1973 war,
131–32
,
137
; Nixon,
128
,
137
,
197
; Obama,
199
,
207
,
342
; Oklahoma City bombing (1995),
195
; Palestinians in,
309
; patron-client relationships,
198
; pax Americana,
196
,
199
,
201
; Quartet on the Middle East,
343
; Reagan,
160–61
,
184
,
204
; Franklin D. Roosevelt,
197
; Sadat and,
133–34
,
198
,
325–27
; and Saudi Arabia,
64
,
192
,
198
,
199
,
200
,
260
; September 11, 2001,
172
,
190
,
194–96
,
200–204
,
261
; State Department,
64
,
318
,
323
,
335
; unofficial nationalism and,
276
; and War of Attrition,
127–28
; war on terrorism,
190
,
195
,
200–203
,
336
,
433n72
; Wilson,
42
,
44
,
100
; World Trade Center attacks (1993),
195
; World War II supply route,
381
; Zionist Partition Plan endorsed by,
418n37
.
See also
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); Clinton, Bill; Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003); Second Gulf War (1990–91)

upper classes: economic liberalization and,
261
; quasi-democracies,
241
; semiformal sector compared,
370
.
See also
ruling families

uprisings.
See
rebellion; riots

urban areas,
6
,
11–13
,
33
,
408n14
; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011),
267
; Beirut,
38
,
125
; Byzantium,
10
; Constantinople,
10
,
11
,
21
,
22
; economic development,
353
,
360
; environmental pollution,
396–98
; informal sector employment,
365–66
; Mesopotamia,
11
,
408n7
; migration from rural areas to,
85
,
255
,
353
,
365
,
366
,
368
,
396
,
408n14
; political opposition organizations,
253
; population concentrations,
12–13
,
33
,
396
,
397
; poverty,
369
; Riyadh,
12
,
62
,
63
,
200
; Safavid,
29
; and secular nationalism’s decline,
254
; state-society relations,
253
,
280
.
See also
Baghdad; Cairo; Damascus; Istanbul; Jerusalem; Mecca; Medina; Tehran

Uruguay, democratization,
281

USS
Cole
bombing (2000), Yemen,
195
,
200

U Thant,
118

Uthman (644–56),
16
,
18
,
19

uymaqs,
29
,
30

veil, Islamic,
54
,
60
,
414n47