Russia (58 page)

30.
The English version of Catherine’s manifesto of 1763 inviting foreigners is reproduced in Bartlett,
Human Capital,
pp. 237—41, 264—7. The quoted pasages are from a handbill, ibid., pp. 243—4.

31.
G. Reinbeck,
Travels from St. Petersburg through Moscow, Grodno, Warsaw, Breslaw, etc. to Germany in the Year 1805
(London, 1807), p. 147.

32.
Thaden,
Russia’s Western Borderlands,
p. 43.

33.
An interesting discussion of these issues is provided by Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölikerreich,
pp. 74-78.

34.
Z. Kohut, ‘The Ukrainian elite in the eighteenth century and its integration into the Russian nobility’, in I. Banac and P. Bushkovich,
The Nobility of Russia and Eastern Europe
(New Haven, 1983), pp. 65-85.

35.
Longworth,
The Cossacks,
pp. 224—34.

36.
S. Lavrov’s archival research has also shown that at least one Russian governor-general - V. N. Tatishchev, Kirillov’s successor as governor of Orenburg - was bilingual in Russian and German.

37.
Madariaga,
Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great,
pp. 323—34.

38.
Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
pp. I05f, 96, 116; J. Hartley,
A Social History of the Russian Empire, 1630-1823
(London, 1999), p. 75.

39.
Thaden,
Russia’s Western Borderlands,
pp. 33-4.

40.
Raeff, ed.,
Political Ideas and Institutions;
Madariaga,
Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great,
ch. 18.

41.
Saul,
Russia and the Mediterranean,
pp. 42—4.

42.
Coxe,
Russian Discoveries,
p. 306.

43.
N.-G. Le Clerc,
Histoire physique, morale, civile et politique de la Russie moderne
(2 vols., Paris-Versailles, 1783-5), vol. 1, pp. 475-86 et seq.

44.
R. Hellie, ‘The costs of Muscovite military defence and expansion’, in E. Lohr and M. Poe, eds.,
The Military and Society in Russia 1430-1917
(Leiden, 2002), pp. 41-66.

45.
Kahan,
The Plow, The Hammer and the Knout,
table 1.1, p. 8.

1.
The estimates of land area are Liubavskii’s, in his
Obzor istorii russkoi kolo-nizatsii,
p. 539.

2.
M. Atkin,
Russia and Iran 1780-1828
(Minneapolis, 1980), pp. 73ff; General Tornau’s account in J. Baddeley,
The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus
(London, 1908), pp. 272-4; M. Atkin, ‘Russian expansion in the Caucasus to 1893’, in Rywkin, ed.,
Russian Colonial Expansion,
pp. 139-87 (I have adapted his translation of Tsitsianov’s words).

3.
Baddeley,
The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus,
p. 76.

4.
Proclamation of 18 February 1808 issued by Count Bouxhoevden in [General Sprengtporten],
Narrative of the Conquest of Finland by the Russians in the Years 1808-g,
ed. General Monteith (London, 1854), pp. 225-7.

5.
The quoted passage is in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 2, p. 490. See also Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
pp. 87-8.

6.
See G. Jewsbury,
The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia 1774—1828
(Boulder, 1976), pp. 26-66.

7.
The size of the
Grande Armée
is the estimate of C. von Clausewitz,
The Campaign of 1812 in Russia
(London, 1843). For the campaign itself, aside from Clausewitz see L. Tolstoy’s
War and Peace.
Tolstoy based his account of operations on the archive of the Russian quartermaster-general, his uncle.

8.
Kutuzov to Alexander I, 4 September 1812, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 2, pp. 497-8.

9.
F. Vigel’s memoirs quoted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 2, p. 511.

10.
Clausewitz,
The Campaign of 1812,
p. 100.

11.
[Sir R. Wilson],
A Sketch of the Military and Political Power of Russia in the Year 1817
(2nd edn, London, 1817).

12.
H. Seton-Watson’s
The Russian Empire 1801-1917
(Oxford, 1967) is still useful. For an account of the diplomacy
c.
1815, Poland in the context of the settlement, and the strategic implications of Russia’s expansion in the early nineteenth century, see pp. 142-52.

13.
Ibid., pp. 172-4; Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
pp. 71ff.

14.
A. Pushkin, ‘Klevetnikam Rossii’ (‘To the Slanderers of Russia’), 1831.

15.
Thaden,
Russia’s Western Borderlands,
p. 231.

16.
On the fundamental problem see G. von Rauch,
Russland: Staatliche Einheit und nationale Vielfalt
(Munich, 1953). Vigel is quoted on the title page of Raeff’s,
Siberia and the Reforms of 1822.
On communications, J. Gibson, ‘Tsarist Russia and colonial America’, in Wood, ed.,
The History of Siberia,
p. 105.

17.
J. Cochrane,
Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through Russia and Siberian Tartary to the Frozen Sea and Kamtchatka
(3rd edn, London, 1825), pp. 346-7. So far from being prejudiced against native people Captain Cochrane married one, a Kamchadale woman.

18.
Raeff,
Siberia and the Reforms of 1822,
pp. 85, 7; Armstrong,
Russian Settlement in the North,
pp. 104—205
passim;
extracts from Speransky’s Statute for the Administrative Organization of Siberia of 1822 are provided in Vernadsky,
Source Book,
vol. 2, pp. 506-8; Forsyth,
A History of the Peoples of Siberia,
p. 164.

19.
See R. Hovannisian, ‘Russian Armenia: a century of rule’,
Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas,
Neue Folge, 19, 1 (1971), 31-48.

20.
Lazzerini, ‘The Crimea under Russian rule’, pp. 131—2.

21.
Yermolov is quoted in Baddeley,
The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus,
p. 97. I have modernized the translation.

22.
See for example, M. Gammer, ‘Russian strategies in the conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan 1825-1859’, in M. Broxup, ed.,
The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World
(London, 1992).

23.
Barrett,
At the Edge of Empire,
p. 23.

24.
Pallas,
Travels,
vol. 1, p. 405; see also [G. Ellis?],
Memoir of a Map of the Countries Comprehended between the Black Sea and the Caspian
(London, 1788), not only
for the map, which is of the Caucasus, itself but for the useful compilation from the works of Guldenstaedt, Reinegg and others on the customs of the peoples of the Caucasus, their languages etc.

25.
The Russian Journal of Lady Londonderry,
ed. W. Seaman and J. Sewell (London, 1973), p. 80.

26.
Pallas,
Travels,
vol. 1, p. 438.

27.
E von Gille,
Lettres sur le Caucase et la Crimée
(Paris, 1859), P. 109.

28.
E. Spencer,
Travels in the Western Caucasus
(2 vols., London, 1838), vol. 1, pp. 96-7.

29.
Baddeley,
The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus,
pp. 272-4.

30.
For estimates of Chechen population, see M. Wagner,
Travels in Persia, Georgia and Koordistan
(3 vols., London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 253-4; Gille,
Lettres sur le Caucase et la Crimée,
p. 111.

31.
W. E. D. Allen and P. Muratoff,
Caucasian Battlefields
(Cambridge, 1953), ch. 3; for an analysis of these campaigns, see Gammer, ‘Russian strategies’.

32.
On the Tsar’s interest in the Ardebil Library see L. Kelly,
Diplomacy and Murder in Teheran: Alexander Griboyedov and Imperial Russia’s Mission to the Shah of Persia
(London, 2002), pp. 157—8;
passim
for a lively account of the negotiations with the Persians and the career of the playwright Griboyedov, who played a key role in them (and met his death as a result).

33.
R. Pinkerton,
Russia, or Miscellaneous Observations of the Past and Present of that Country and its Inhabitants
(London, 1833), pp. 135—6.

34.
Baron von Haxthausen,
Transcaucasia
(London, 1854), pp. 45—6.

35.
‘Declaration of Circassian Independence Addressed to the Courts of Europe’, in E. Spencer,
Travels in Circassia, Krim Tartary, etc.
(2 vols., London, 1837), vol. 1, pp. 293-7, reproducing [D. Urquhart],
The Portfolio,
vol. 1.

36.
See J. Bell,
Journal of a Residence in Circassia during the Years 1837, 1838 and 1839
(2 vols., London, 1840).

37.
See Gammer, ‘Russian strategies’; also Allen and Muratoff,
Caucasian Battlefields.

38.
See X. Hommaire de Hell,
Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian Sea
(London, 1847), pp. 201ff.

39.
Baron von Haxthausen,
The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions and Resources (2
vols., London, 1856), vol. 2, pp. 292-4.

40.
Census returns reproduced in R. Venables,
Domestic Scenes in Russia
(London, 1839), p. 349.

41.
The Alaska Company had its headquarters in Petropavlovsk on Kamchatka, but Russian naval Captain A. von Krusenstern
(Voyage Round the World,
trans. R. Hoppne (2 vols., London, 1813), vol. 2, pp. 105, no) reported that the Company’s ships were ill-built and equipped, and its employees tyrannical not only to the Kodiaks and Aleuts but to Russians too.

42.
H. D. Seymour,
Russia on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, being a Narrative of Travels in the Crimea and the Bordering Provinces
(London, 1855), pp. 91—2.

43.
L. Oliphant,
Russian Shores of the Black Sea
(London, 1854), p. 261.

44.
Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 2, p. 551.

45.
Ibid., pp. 552-3, 560.

1.
Goncharov’s novel is available in English translation.

2.
The statistical surveys published by the government are impressive in both their extent and their quality. There are, besides, both many good accounts by contemporaries (e.g. D. Mackenzie Wallace,
Russia
(London, 1912)) and several good scholarly studies.

3.
Decree of 26 January 1857, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 607; see also V. Grossman, ‘The industrialization of Russia’, in C. Cipolla, ed.,
The Fontana Economic History of Europe
(London, 1973), vol. 4, section 7; Seton-Watson,
The Russian Empire,
pp. 406—7.

4.
McEvedy and Jones,
Atlas of World Population History,
pp. 79, 159, 161.

5.
Vice-Chancellor (Foreign Secretary) A. M. Gorchakov to his opposite numbers, 1864, quoted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, p. 610. For the implications see A. Tuminez,
Russian Nationalism since 1836: Ideology and the Making of Foreign Policy
(London, 2000).

6.
O. Alexander, ‘Tiutchev’s political memorandum rediscovered’,
Elementa,
1 (1933), 91ff-

7.
V Grigorev, 1840, quoted in M. Bassin,
Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East 1840—63
(Cambridge, 1990), P. 54.

8.
Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich,
pp. 215-17.

9.
B. Manz, ‘Central Asian uprisings in the nineteenth century’,
Russian Review,
46, 3 (1987), 267-81.

10.
See S. Becker, ‘Russia’s Central Asian Empire 1885-1917’, in Rywkin, ed.,
Russian Colonial Expansion,
pp. 235-40.

11.
See D. Mackenzie, ‘The conquest and administration of Turkestan, 1860-85’, in Rywkin, ed.,
Russian Colonial Expansion,
pp. 2o8ff.

12.
R. Leslie,
Reform and Insurrection in Russian Poland 1836—1863
(London, 1963), is still the fullest and most balanced account in English.

13.
Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 3, pp. 612-13.

14.
The point is made by Thaden in his
Russia’s Western Borderlands,
p. 239.

15.
B. Sumner,
Russia and the Balkans 1870-1880
(Oxford, 1937), pp. 6off.

16.
Translated, with some omissions, from the text in M. Baring and D. Costello, eds.,
The Oxford Book of Russian Verse
(Oxford, 1944), pp. 130-31.

17.
Sumner,
Russia and the Balkans,
pp. 580—82.

18.
See J. Le Donne,
The Russian Empire and the World 1700—1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment
(New York and Oxford, 1997), esp. map 5, p. 134.

19.
B. Sumner,
Tsardom and Imperialism in the Far East and Middle East, 1880-1
9
14
(London, 1940), pp. 21—31.

20.
I have adapted T. von Laue’s translation in
Journal of Modern History, 26
(March 1954), 64-73.

21.
See B. Mitchell in Cipolla, ed.,
Fontana Economic History of Europe,
vol. 4, pt 2, pp. 793—4, 773, 775; A. Gerschenkron’s contributions to
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe,
vol. 6 (Cambridge, 1965); also his
Europe in the Russian Mirror
(Cambridge, 1970).

22.
For the significance of this rare concession without constraint, see N. Bolkhovitinov, ‘The sale of Alaska in the context of Russian-American relations in the 19th century’, in Ragsdale,
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy,
pp. 193—21; on the background, see Muravev’s memorandum to Alexander II of March 1854 in G. Lensen,
The Russian Push towards Japan: Russo-Japanese Relations, 1697-1875
(Princeton, 1959), pp. 300-301.