Russia (56 page)

3.
See the contrasting views of R. Hellie, ‘What happened? How did he get away with it? Ivan Groznyi’s paranoia and the problem of institutional restraints’,
Russian History,
14 (1987), 199-224; A. A. Zimin,
Reformy Ivana Groznogo
(Moscow, i960), R. Skrynnikov,
Ivan Groznyi
(Moscow, 1980), and A. Dvorkin,
Ivan the Terrible as a Religious Type
(Erlangen, 1992).

4.
Nikon Chronicle excerpted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 133.

5.
See B. Floria,
Ivan Groznyi
(Moscow, 1999), p. 17. Tales about the infant Ivan pulling the wings off a butterfly resemble (and are probably of the same German provenance) as the tales of Dracula - see M. Cazacu,
L’Histoire du Prince Dracula en Europe Centrale et Orientale
(Geneva, 1998).

6.
For Moscow’s dealings with the various Mongol factions see Khodarkovsky,
Russia’s Steppe Frontier,
pp. 106-11. For the implications for further southward expansion see C. Lemercier-Quelquejoy, ‘Co-optation
of
the elites of Kabarda and Daghestan in the sixteenth century’, in M. Bennigsen Broxup, ed.,
The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance towards the Muslim World
(London, 1992), pp. 18-42.

7.
Communication from Jukka Korpela posted on M. Poe site, 29 March 2000.

8.
R. Hakluyt,
The Principal Navigations Voyages Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation
(12 vols., Glasgow, 1908), vol. 3, p. 384.

9.
Nolde,
La Formation de l’Empire Russe,
vol. 1, pp. 77-8.

10.
J. Martin, ‘Peculiarities of the
pomest’e
system’, in Gy Szvak, ed.,
Muscovy: Peculiarities of its Development
(Budapest, 2003), pp. 76—87.

11.
See Floria,
Ivan Groznyi.
Also Khodarkovsky,
Russia’s Steppe Frontier,
pp. 102-45.

12.
Nolde,
La Formation de l’Empire Russe,
vol. 2, pp. 303-5.

13.
Bantysh-Kamenskii,
Obzor vneshnykh snoshenii Rossii (po 1800),
Pt 1, vol. 1, pp. 9-7.

14.
A. Kappeler,
Russland als Vielvölkerreich
(Munich, 1992), p. 43; and see ch. 8 below.

15.
Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, 1972, p. 142; B. Rudakov,
Entsiklopedicheskii slovar
’, vol. 3 (St Petersburg, 1900), pp. 803-5; Nolde,
La Formation de l’Empire Russe,
vol. 1, pp. 132-3.

16.
For translations of the basic Russian account, see T. Armstrong, ed.,
Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia
(London, 1975), and W. Coxe,
Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America
(4th edn, London, 1803), pp. 418ff.

17.
E. Winter,
Russland und das Papstum
(Berlin, 1960), p. 179; Longworth, ‘Russia and the Antemurale Christianitatis’; on England, see S. Baron,
Muscovite Russia
(London, 1980), Essay III, pp. 42-63; also M. Anderson,
Britain’s Discovery of Russia
(London, 1958).

18.
See Frost,
The Northern Wars,
pp. 24 and 77. Russia’s administrative policy in
Livonia has been examined by N. Angermann,
Studien zur Livlandpolitik Ivan Groznyjs
(Marburg, 1972); see particularly pp.
25ff.

19.
The Russian Invasion of Poland in 1563 — a
translation by J. C. H[otten] of
Memorabilis et perinde stupenda de crudeli Moscovitarum Expeditione narratio
(Douai, n.d.).

20.
Among the most useful contributions to the huge literature on the
oprichnina
are S. B. Veselovskii,
Isledovaniia po istorii oprichniny
(Moscow, 1963), esp. here pp. 133ff., and Zimin,
Reformy Ivana Groznogo.
My account also draws on Fiona’s
Ivan Groznyi.
It is worth noting that Vipper, the leading apologist for Ivan, was an anti-Bolshevik who fled Russia at the Revolution and consented to return only at the approach of war in 1941.

21.
See I. Pryzhkov,
Istoriia kabakov v Rossii
(Moscow, 1991). On the origins of the commune, see R. E. F. Smith,
Peasant Farming in Muscovy
(Cambridge, 1977).

22.
Floria,
Ivan Groznyi,
pp. 172f, 168ff.

23.
Ibid., p. 179.

24.
This is argued by Janet Martin in her
Medieval Russia 980—1584
(Cambridge, 1996), pp. 347-8.

25.
That the Duma (the Russian word for ‘council’) was a formalized institution at this stage is a construct of historians who assume too much.

26.
Floria,
Ivan Groznyi,
p. 393.

27.
Adapted from J. L. I. Fennell’s translation of Ivan’s letter of 1564 in his
The Correspondence between Prince A. M. Kurbsky and Tsar Ivan IV of Russia 1564-1579
(Cambridge, 1955).

28.
Floria,
Ivan Groznyi,
pp. 393—4.

29.
S. B. Veselovskii,
Trudy po istochnikovedenii i istorii Rossii v periode feodalzma
(Moscow, 1978), p. 153.

30.
See Dvorkin,
Ivan the Terrible as a Religious Type,
p. 105. Chapter 8 of this work, which draws on recent as well as older scholarship, is helpful on the
oprichnina.

31.
Floria,
Ivan Groznyi,
pp. 233—43.

32.
E. Chistiakova, ed., N. Rogozhin, compiler, et al.,
(Oko vsei velikoi Rossii’: ob istorii rossiiskoi diplomaticheskoi sluzhby xvi—xvii vekov
(Moscow, 1989), pp. 54ff.

33.
See the contributions of D. Kayser, J. Kollman and others to the Marshall Poe web site
www.people.fas.harvard.edu
for June 2001, etc.

34.
A. A. Zimin,
V kanun groznykh potriasenii: predposylki pervoi krest’ianskoi voiny v Rossii
(Moscow, 1986), p. 5.

35.
‘The Testament of Ivan IV, the Terrible’, in Howes, ed.,
Testaments of the Grand Princes of Moscow,
p. 307-8.

1.
See Zimin,
V kanun groznykh potriasenii.

2.
Chistiakova, Rogozhin et al.,
‘Oko vsei velikoi Rossii’,
pp. 71ff. Vasilii Shchelkalov took charge of the Foreign Office on his brother’s death.

3.
See W. E. D. Allen, ed.,
Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings (1589-1605)
(2 vols., Cambridge, 1970), vol. 1, p. 60.

4.
Zimin,
V kanun groznykh potriasenii, p. 237.

5.
M. Raeff,
Siberia and the Reforms of 1822
(Seattle, 1956), p. xiv.

6.
On frontier defences, see Khodarkovsky,
Russia’s Steppe Frontier,
pp. 131ff.
passim.

7.
Hakluyt,
Voyages,
vol. 3, p. 384.

8.
V. Klein,
Uglichskoesledstvennoe delo i smerti Tsarevicha Dmitriia
(Moscow, 1913), and Veselovskii,
Trudy po istochnikovedenii i istorii Rossii v periode feodalzma,
pp. 156-89. See also R. G. Skrynnikov,
Boris Godunov
(Moscow, 1979), pp. 67-84.

9.
For the Romanovs’ role in promoting, and exploiting, the cult, see A. Kleimola, ‘The Romanovs and the cult of the Tsarevich Dmitrii’, in
Religiia i tserkov’ v kul’turno-istoricheskom razvitiei russkogo severa
(Kirov, 1996), pp. 230-3.

10.
On Boris himself, apart from Skrynnikov,
Boris Godunov,
see Chester Dunning’s compendious history of the Time of Troubles,
Russia’s First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty
(University Park, Penn., 2001), pp. 9iff. and
passim.

11.
Nolde,
La Formation de l’Empire Russe,
vol. 2, p. 317.

12.
Allen, ed.,
Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings,
vol. 1, pp. 87ff. for translations of the diplomatic record; the preceding introduction for the background, and the apparatus in vol. 2 for explanations of people, places etc. The list quoted appears in the embassy’s instructions: vol. 1, p. 98.

13.
B. Gudziak,
Crisis and Reform: The Kievan Metropolitanate, the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Genesis of the Union of Brest
(Cambridge, Mass., 1998), is scholarly and helpful and, though by a Uniate, is not unsympathetic to Orthodox sentiments. See also M. Dmitriev, B. Floria and S. Iakovenko,
Brestskaia uniia 1596g i obshchestvenno-politicheskaia bor’ba na Ukraine i v Belorussii v xvi-nachale xvii v,
Pt 1 (Moscow, 1996), on the causes. However, an adequate account of how the religious divide between Orthodox, Uniate and Catholic came to be drawn has yet to be written.

14.
Mouravieff,
A History of the Church of Russia,
p. 145.

15.
Zimin,
Vkanun groznykh potriasenii,
p. 238.

16.
Iu. Got’e, ed.,
Akty otnosiashchiesia k istorii zemskikh soborov,
vyp. 1 (Moscow, 1909), pp. 12ff.

17.
C. Bussow,
The Disturbed State of the Russian Realm,
trans. and ed. G. Orchard (Montreal, 1994), pp. 13-14. The account is confirmed by other sources.

18.
Ye. Borisenkov and V. Piasetskii,
Tysiachiletnaia letopis’ neobychnykh iavlenii prirody
(Moscow, 1988), pp. 323-4.

19.
Bussow,
The Disturbed State of the Russian Realm,
pp. 32—3.

20.
Smith to Cecil, 25 February 1606, Cecil Papers 104/47, Hatfield House Library.

21.
P. Longworth, ‘Political rumour in early modern Russia’, in Szvak, ed.,
Muscovy: Peculiarities of its Development,
pp. 27-33.

22.
The standard source for these events is Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War,
pp. 131ff.

23.
The New Chronicle quoted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 183.

24.
References to most of these can be found in Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War;
on Dmitry’s ‘magic with devils’, Ryan,
The Bathhouse at Midnight,
p. 39.

25.
Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War,
ch. 14.

26.
The New Chronicle quoted in Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 183.

27.
Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War,
pp. 412—13.

28.
Instructions for King Sigismund’s envoy to the Pope, 22 September 1611, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, pp. 201-2.

29.
Iaroslavl to Vologda letter, February 1611, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 197.

30.
Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War,
p. 421.

31.
Archimandrite Dionysius’s appeal of 6 October 1611, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 204; Letters from Kazan to Perm and from Tobolsk to Narym, September and October 1611, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, pp. 201-4.

32.
Pozharskii to Solvychegodsk, 7 April 1612, Vernadsky et al.,
Source Book,
vol. 1, pp. 205-7.

33.
Ibid., pp. 199-200.

34.
See R. Hellie,
The Economy and Material Culture of Russia 1600-1723
(Chicago, 1999), p. 498.

35.
Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War,
pp. 438—9.

36.
See the now rich literature on pretenders in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries — Perrie, Skrynnikov, Longworth et al.

37.
G. Hosking has argued that Russia’s development was impeded by a lack of national self-consciousness. Yet the mobilization letters quoted above suggest otherwise. The Russians had a clear sense of who they were at the beginning of the 1600s, and other ethnic groups in Russia seem to have shared that sense to some extent.

1.
N. Rogozhin, ‘Mesto Rossii xvi—xvii vekov v Evrope po materialam posolskikh knig’, in Szvak, ed.,
The Place of Russia in Europe,
pp. 88—96.

2.
There was a rebellion in Moscow in 1648, serious riots in other major cities in 1650—51; the ‘Copper Riots’ of 1660—61, the huge uprising led by the
Cossack Stepan Razin in southern Russia in 1670—71; the musketeer riot of 1682, etc.

3.
The estimate is based on figures in D. Moon,
The Russian Peasantry 1600—1930
(London, 1999), table 1.3 and p. 21, n. 17. Moon draws his data from Ye. Vodarskii,
Naselenie Rossii za 400 let
(Moscow, 1973), p. 27, and his
Naselenie Rossii v kontse xvii—nachale xviii veka
(Moscow, 1977), pp. 134, 192. I have adjusted Moon’s figures to take account of seventeenth-century frontier changes. The estimate in C. McEvedy and R. Jones,
Atlas of World Population History
(London, 1980), p. 79, seems somewhat inflated.

4.
Hellie,
The Economy and Material Culture of Russia,
pp. 635—9.

5.
Ibid., pp. 643, 637.

6.
I have argued the point in
Alexis, Tsar of All the Russias
(London, 1984), p. 160.

7.
Even the English-language literature on the conquest of Siberia is too considerable to list here, but I refer to the works I found useful in the references which follow.

8.
See the instructions to the governor of Tsivylsk in Cheremis country near Kazan in Nolde,
La Formation de l’Empire Russe,
vol. 1, p. 75, quoting
Dopolneniia k aktam istoricheskim
(4 vols., 1846-72), vol. 2, doc. 79.

9.
Tsar Vasilii Shuiskii to the governor of Pelym, 6 August 1609, in Vernadsky
et al., Source Book,
vol. 1, p. 263.

10.
R. Fisher, ed.,
The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648
(London, 1981), pp. 107—8. For graphic evidence of the dangers and privations Stadukhin and other explorers confronted, see also pp. 74-84.