Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects (45 page)

respiratory system,
37
,
143

Rhynia
,
48

Rhynie, Scotland,
48
,
63

Rhyniella praecursor
,
63
,
204n4
(ch. 4)

Rhyniognatha hirsti
,
68

rhyniophytes,
48
,
50–51

riddles,
92
,
130–32

roaches,
xii
,
11
,
75
,
84
,
89–90
,
99
,
110
,
114
,
118
,
122
,
147
,
206n17

rock crawlers,
11
,
100

roots,
48
,
57–58
,
74
,
158

rotifers,
64

Sagan, Carl,
187–88

salamanders,
x
,
118
,
122
,
154

saliva,
102
,
162

salt tolerance,
3
,
59

saltwater,
99

Sanctacaris
,
31

San Ramon Biological Reserve,
viii
,
ix–xiv
,
21

Saturniidae,
192
,
pl. 11–12

sawflies,
1
,
117
,
127–29
,
136–38
,
157
; Mesozoic,
137
,
176
; xyelid,
1
,
116–17
,
127
,
136

scale insects,
61
,
102
,
166

scavengers,
xi
,
2
,
46–47
,
59
,
89
,
101
,
126
,
134
,
146

Schmidt Sting Pain Index,
212n9

scents,
152–53
,
183

scorpionflies,
3
,
95
,
105–6
,
118
,
122
,
129
,
207nn9–10

scorpions,
11
,
20
,
30
,
36
,
39
,
41–45
,
44
,
46
,
50–51
,
56
,
62
,
84
,
90
,
105
,
136
,
173
,
192
,
206n16

sea levels,
69
,
96
,
99

sea scorpions,
34–35
,
39
,
41
,
54
,
95
,
173

secondary defensive chemicals,
121
,
206n15

sediments: bottom,
26–27
,
71
,
87
; carbon-based,
23
; marine fossil,
95
; mineral,
25
; organic,
26
,
90
; Permian,
112

seed ferns,
73
,
90
,
95
,
206n15

seeds,
54
,
77
,
158
,
163
,
166
,
175
; dispersers of,
129
,
166
,
192

segmentation,
26
,
29
,
35
,
41
,
45
,
60
,
85
,
93
,
191

sensory systems,
28
,
105

sex determination,
128
,
164–65

shells,
20
,
26
; of insect eggs,
138
,
142

shorelines,
3
,
25
,
40–42
,
45
,
48–49
,
51
,
55–56
,
65
,
67
,
90
,
96
,
112
,
129
,
175
,
181

shrimp,
20
,
31
,
54

silica,
75

silk,
106–8
,
124
,
137
,
143
,
144
,
145–46
,
158
,
183
,
212
,
211n3
; glands,
106
,
124
,
145
,
210n9

Silurian: arthropods,
xi
; coral reefs,
38–39
; Early,
37
,
42
; landscape,
48
; Late,
xi
,
15
,
41
,
48–49
,
57
,
69
,
175
; myriapods,
16
,
62
; period,
xi
,
17
,
32
,
35–51
,
54
,
96
,
114
,
175
,
181
; seas,
39
; sediments,
48
; scorpions,
41–45
,
173
; trilobites,
39

silverfish,
xi
,
61
,
68–69
,
76–77
,
80
,
205n5
,
205n9

simplicity,
92
,
113
,
213n2

skeletal: diversity,
27
; systems,
26
,
37

skeletons,
20
,
25
,
190
; external,
x
,
11
,
16
,
20
,
27–29
,
31
,
37
,
87
,
93
,
181
,
190–91
; first,
17
,
20
; internal,
28

snakeflies,
118
,
122
,
127
,
129

snakes,
x
,
43
,
127
,
154

snowball earth,
24–25

snow fields,
100–101

social insects,
3
,
15
,
117
,
121
,
128
,
146–47
,
160
,
162–66
,
176

societies: female-dominated,
164
; insect,
147
,
162–67
; termite,
146–49

soil,
117
; arthropods,
74–75
,
79
; insects,
78
,
80
; producers,
2
,
149

soils: Devonian,
59
,
64
,
69
; microbial,
47–48
,
50
,
57–58
,
63
; organic,
xi
,
58

solar radiation,
37
,
45
,
78
,
100
,
181

songs: of amphibians,
76
; of birds,
129
; of insects,
122
,
129

species,
5
; accumulation,
182
; biological,
6
,
8–9
; cryptic,
8–9
; ecological,
7
,
9
; evolutionary,
6–7
,
9
; human,
188
; hypothesis,
8–9
; insect,
1
,
188
; keystone,
128
; morphological,
7–8
; new,
8
,
130
,
177–79
,
184
; ocean-dwelling,
95
; originations,
145
,
180–81
; process of naming,
8
,
130
; richness of,
2
,
94–95
,
111
,
171
; swarming,
70–73
,
120–21
; vertebrate,
3
,
10
; weedy,
2
,
112

species concept: biological,
6
,
8–9
; ecological,
7
,
9
; evolutionary,
6–7
,
9
; morphological,
7–8

sperm: cells,
44
,
48
,
128
; storage,
128
,
164

spermatheca,
128
,
164

spermatophores,
44
,
48
,
64–65
,
73

spiders,
11
,
20
,
31
,
43
,
56
,
62
,
84
,
90
,
154
,
206n16
,
206n1
(ch. 6)

spines,
28
,
35
,
pl. 11

spinnerettes,
145

spiracles,
x–xi
,
49
,
60
,
145

spittlebugs,
pl. 7

sponges,
26

sporangia,
48
,
57
,
100

spores,
50
,
77
,
80
,
82
,
100
,
205n11

springtails,
xi
,
3
,
4
,
63–66
,
64
,
68–69
,
79
,
146
,
204n4
(ch. 4)

squids,
33–35
,
38
,
173
; cephalopod,
33–34
,
41
,
54

stars,
186
,
188

startle response,
pl. 12

stasis,
22

steroids,
159

stick insects,
122
,
123
,
157
; Australian titan,
131

stinger,
43
,
105
,
128
,
137
,
160–61
,
161
,
165
,
167–68

stink bugs,
126
,
154

stomata,
49

stoneflies,
3
,
79–80
,
89
,
99
,
106–7
,
109
,
110
,
117
,
122

storage excretion,
84

streams,
106
,
108–9
,
112
,
118
,
124
,
126
,
174–76

Streblidae,
13

stromatolites,
26

stylets,
102

styli,
67
,
68

subterranean species,
3

sulfuric aerosols,
97

sun,
23
,
174
,
188

sunlight,
78
,
89–90
,
100
,
109
,
169
,
174–75

supercontinents,
108
,
112–13
,
154

supernova,
37
,
168

surface tension,
177

swamps,
15
,
73–75
,
81
,
84
,
132

swarms,
70–73
,
85
,
120–21
,
150

symbiont hypothesis,
210n11

symbiosis,
75
,
90
,
142
,
147–48
,
192

symbiotic microorganisms,
75
,
147–48

symmetry,
30

symphylans,
45
,
47–48
,
50–51

systematic entomology,
130

tagmosis,
35
,
45
,
59

tangle-winged flies,
157

tannins,
159
,
176
,
206n15

tardigrades,
22
,
64

temperature tolerance,
4
,
100–101

teratocytes,
143

termites,
3
,
11
,
75
,
146–49
,
148
,
151
,
163–64
,
172
,
176
,
210nn10–11
; first,
146
; families of,
149
; queen,
1
,
149

terpenoids,
159

terrestrial: animals,
40
; ecosystems,
xiv
,
2
,
35
,
37
,
51
,
56
,
191
; environment,
2
; insects,
113
; nymphs,
80
; plants,
40
; predators,
84
; vertebrates,
37