Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects (41 page)

eggs,
61
; amphibian,
87
; bee,
162
; beetle,
74
; dobsonfly,
125
; dragonfly,
86
; insect,
106
,
179
; mayfly,
73
; parasitic,
142
; sawfly,
117
; scorpion,
43–45
; snakefly,
127
; wasp,
128
,
137–42
,
160
,
164
,
179–80

elytron,
109

Embiodea,
122
,
124

emergences, synchronized,
71
,
73
,
121

emergence sites,
78

endoparasitism,
140–45
,
144
,
145

environment,
37
; predator-free,
87

Ephedra antisyphilitica
,
156–57

Ephemeroptera,
72
,
98
,
122

epidemics,
167

epiphytes,
175
,
181
,
183
,
186

era: Cenozoic,
xiv
,
18
,
96
; Mesozoic,
xii
,
18
,
96
,
169
; Paleozoic,
17–18
,
27
,
54–55
,
96
; Precambrian,
55

Erwin, Douglas,
92
,
97
,
112

Erwin, Terry,
xiv
,
182

eurypterids,
34
,
39
,
43
,
54

evolution: animal,
70
; aquatic insect,
107
; bird,
149–51
; of crypsis,
122
; flower,
155–57
; of humans,
38
,
154
,
166
,
169
,
171–72
; insect,
14–15
,
50
,
59
,
89
,
150–51
; of insect flight,
77–80
; of life,
40
,
59
,
189
; planetary,
188
; plant,
63
,
151
,
181
; rapid,
25
,
112
; of shells,
26
; social wasp,
165
; stellar,
189
; wasp,
145–46

evolutionary species concept,
6–7

excretion,
84
,
145
,
166
; byproducts of,
84
,
190
; delayed,
143
; organs of,
60
,
106
; rapid,
102

external skeletons,
x
,
11
,
16
,
20
,
27–29
,
31
,
37
,
87
,
93
,
181
,
190–91

extinction,
xiii
,
2
,
5
,
15
,
17
,
56
,
95
,
111–12
,
122
,
150
,
154
,
173
,
182
; Cretaceous,
101
,
168–69
; crisis,
182–85
; dinosaur,
166–69
; mass,
23
,
59
,
69
,
91–92
,
94
; Permian,
96–99
,
101
,
104–5
,
108
,
111–14
,
117
,
166
,
206n3
; of trilobites,
32

extinct orders,
xii
,
80–87
,
83
,
86
,
86
,
98
,
98–100
,
105
,
110–11
,
122
,
205n5
,
205n11
,
205n13
,
206n2

extraterrestrial life,
188–93

eyes,
59

eye spots,
pl. 12

fairyfly,
12
,
13
,
103

families: insect,
10
; vertebrate,
94

fear,
43

feathers,
28
,
116
,
122
,
149–51
,
176

feces,
67
,
148

feeding sites,
78
,
80

ferns,
ix
,
48
,
73
,
90
,
95
,
108
,
117
,
124
,
129
,
134
,
151
,
175–76
,
206n15

fertilization,
128
,
164–65

filter chamber,
102

fire,
63
,
81
,
182

firebrats,
68
,
205n5

fishes,
3
,
18
,
28
,
32
,
34–35
,
37–38
,
41
,
43
,
73
,
76
,
87
,
90
,
120
,
125
,
173
; age of,
17
,
55
; armor-plated,
38
; Devonian,
54–56
; families of,
33
; first,
32–33
; freshwater,
38
,
73
,
87
,
120
,
204n2
;
Hyneria
,
55
; jawed,
38
; jawless,
33
,
38
,
73
,
87
; predatory,
55
; Silurian,
43

flavonoids,
50
,
102
,
159

fleas,
5
,
100
,
136
,
181
,
207n10

flies,
1
,
11
,
89
,
151
,
156–57
,
169
,
183
,
191
; alkali,
4
; bat,
13
,
13
,
181
; bee,
157
; biting,
3
; blood-sucking,
13
,
167
; brine,
3
,
59
; chironomid midge,
4
; crane,
10
; deer,
3
; flightless,
3
; flower,
152
; flower-loving,
157
; fruit,
ix
; fungus gnat,
179
; house,
5
; hyperdiversity of,
xiv
; midge,
1
,
3
; nematoceran,
108
; parasitic,
13
,
136
,
181
; seaweed,
3
; shore,
3
; tangle-winged,
157
; tipulid,
4
,
10
; true,
xiv
,
108
,
122

flight,
14
,
69–73
,
76–90
; beetle,
109
; bird,
149–50
; gliding,
77
,
79–80
,
149
,
204n3
(ch. 5),
205n9
; insect,
157

flowering plants,
2
,
15
,
103
,
117
,
121
,
155–57
,
169
,
173
,
180–81

flowers,
xiii
,
5
,
57
,
115–16
,
153–58
,
165
,
168–69
,
176
; evolution of,
154
; first,
152

food: acquisition,
xii
; liquid,
102
; webs,
149

footprints: arthropod,
40
; historic,
36

forests: Carboniferous,
73–75
,
77
,
81
,
90
,
176
; cloud,
66
; Cretaceous,
154–55
; Devonian,
57–58
,
69
; Ecuadorian,
22
; first,
51
,
54
,
57
; Gilboa,
57
,
67
; Jurassic,
132
; rain,
ix
,
82
,
84
,
90
; Triassic,
117–18
,
129
; tropical,
1
,
3
,
15
; wet,
ix
,
73
,
81

fossil: burrows,
25–26
; butterfly,
159
; dragonfly,
119
; evidence,
37
; footprints,
29
; largest wing,
86
; oldest insect,
68
; record,
22
,
108
,
157
,
182
; tracks,
40

fossilization,
22
,
59
,
75
,
108
,
117
,
176

fossils,
20
,
22
,
48
,
95
; amber,
139
,
161
; Cambrian,
25
; compression,
82
; early shelly,
26
; hard-shell,
26
; insect,
82
,
83
,
131
; living,
42
; plant,
48
,
82
,
156
; small shelly,
26
; spore,
82
,
205n11
; state,
22
,
38–40
,
54
,
57
; trace,
25
,
29
; trilobite,
20–22
,
54