Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects (44 page)

oceans,
30
,
36–40
,
45
,
56
,
59
,
67
,
95–97
,
99
,
114
,
126
,
181
,
188–89

Odonata,
98
,
122

omnivory,
89
,
99
,
172

orchids,
157
,
175
,
181

orders,
11
,
94–95
,
117
,
206n3

Ordovician: Early,
27
,
33
; fishes,
33
; Late,
40
; period,
32–34
,
39
,
55
,
96
,
173
; trilobites,
33

organic debris,
50
,
58
,
67

organisms: keystone,
2
; largest,
130–31
; marine,
xiii
,
59
,
169
; multicellular,
20
,
189
; photosynthetic,
189–90
; single-cellular,
20
,
189
; soft-bodied,
20

Ornitholestes
,
150

Orthoptera,
99
,
101
,
122
,
pl. 2
,
pl. 5

ovipositor,
89
,
117
,
127–28
,
137–42
,
139
,
160
,
179–80
,
206n17
; shafts,
137–38
,
209n6

owlflies,
1

oxygen,
23
,
25
,
49
,
79
,
86
,
107
,
181
,
188
,
190
; atmospheric,
x–xi
,
23
,
79
,
85
,
87
,
188
; depleted environments,
4
; depletion,
96
; levels,
5
,
16
,
25
,
49
,
79
,
85
,
87
,
96–97
,
99
,
107
; oceanic,
96
; toxicity,
25
,
190

ozone: enrichment,
181
; layer,
49

Paleocene epoch,
205n7

Paleodictyoptera,
xii
,
80–84
,
83
,
86
,
98,
98
,
100
,
205n11
,
205n13

paleontology,
20–21
,
53

paleopteran insects,
71
,
81–87
,
83
,
85
,
98

Paleozoic: era,
11
,
17–18
,
20–21
,
27
,
54–55
,
96
,
114
; seas,
40
,
54
; trilobites,
11

Pangaea,
xii
,
112–13

paper wasps,
126
,
162
,
165

paralysis,
128
,
140
,
145–46
,
160–62
,
165
,
179

paranotal lobes,
77
,
79–80
,
83
,
110
,
205n10

parasites: blood-feeding,
121
; ectoparasitic,
151
,
181
; internal,
93

parasitic wasps,
10
,
135
,
139
,
151

parasitoids,
136
,
139
,
158
,
178
,
181
; of ants,
14
; defined,
136
; external,
140–41
; first,
138–40
; of insect eggs,
12
; internal,
140–45

parental care,
43

pedipalps,
43

Pelecinidae,
10

Pennsylvanian subperiod,
71
,
76

period: Cambrian,
x
,
17–35
,
37
,
39
,
56
; Carboniferous,
xi–xii
,
55
,
60
,
71–91
; Cretaceous,
xii
; Devonian,
17
,
37
,
42
,
50–69
; Jurassic,
xiii
,
108
,
116
,
129–52
; Ordovician,
27
,
32–34
,
55
; Permian,
xii–xiii
,
15
,
17
,
32–33
,
39
,
82
,
90–114
,
176
; Silurian,
xi
,
17
,
32
,
35–51
,
54
; Triassic,
xii
,
111
,
115–29

Permian: aridity,
102
,
113
; beetles,
xii
,
75
,
109
; communities,
82
,
95
; damselflies,
98
; Early,
94
,
105–6
,
112
; extinctions,
95–99
,
101
,
104–5
,
108
,
111–14
,
117
,
182
,
206n3
; fin-backed reptiles,
90
,
93–94
; holocaust,
111
; insects,
85
; Late,
xiii
,
95–96
,
98
,
105–6
,
108–11
; Middle,
93–94
; period,
xii–xiii
,
15
,
17
,
32–33
,
39
,
82
,
90–114
,
173
,
176
,
181
; scorpionfly diversity,
106
; sediments,
112
; Triassic boundary,
111
,
113

Pertica quadrifaria
,
57

pests,
2
,
76
,
89

Petoskey stones,
53

petroleum,
73–75

Phacops rana
,
54–55

Phasmatodea,
122
,
123

phenols,
206n15

pheromones,
78
,
164

phloem,
82
,
102

photosynthesis,
57–58
,
77
,
102
,
189–91

Phthiraptera,
151
,
211n15

phyla,
11
,
20
,
26–27

Pikaia
,
18–19
,
29
,
33
,
173

placenta,
142

placoderms,
38

planetary evolution,
188

plankton,
33
,
126

plant: bugs,
157
; cell development,
138
; communities,
2
,
103
,
181
; damage,
103
; evolution,
63
; feeding,
pl. 10
; tissues,
113
; toxins,
84
,
158–60
,
166–67

planthoppers,
102
,
118
,
121–22
,
126–27
,
129

plants: asexual,
6
; dioecious,
211n2
; epiphytic,
175
,
181
,
183
,
186
; flowering,
2
,
15
,
103
,
117
,
121
,
155–57
,
169
,
173
,
180–81
; land,
37
,
56–57
;
Munnozia
,
184
; nonvascular,
48
; pitcher,
3
; terrestrial,
40
,
181
; tree-like,
69
; vascular,
48
,
57
,
75

Plateosaurus
,
118

plate tectonics,
96
,
108
,
111–13
,
154–55
,
168
,
171
,
211n1

Plecoptera,
79
,
99
,
110
,
122

pleuron,
76
,
81

poisonous plants,
158–60
,
166
,
168

pollen,
xiii
,
116–17
,
156
,
165
; fossil,
156
,
172

pollination,
89
,
165
,
192
; fluid,
156
; insect-assisted,
156–57
,
181
; wind,
156

pollinators,
153
,
181
,
183

pollution,
71

Polydesmida,
47

Polypedilum vanderplanki
,
4

portable cases,
107

posteromotorism,
109

Precambrian: continents,
25
; era,
55
,
181
; soft-bodied organisms,
20
; rocks,
17

predation pressure,
55

predator: avoidance,
xii
; swamping,
72–73

predators,
136
,
163
: ambush,
60
; aquatic,
126
; Carboniferous,
84
,
90
; deepwater,
40
; defined,
136
; Devonian,
54
,
81
; earthbound,
82
; fast-moving,
94
; keystone,
2
; large,
113
,
135
; of other insects,
pl. 6
; Permian,
100
; vertebrate,
75
,
80
,
84
,
94
; visually-searching,
121
,
123
; vulnerability to,
87
,
146
,
158
,
164

primates,
3
,
162
; arboreal,
172
; insectivorous,
120–21
,
172
; tool use by,
172

prolegs,
61

Protodonata,
xii
,
85–87
,
86
,
99

protomammals,
94
,
96–97
,
173
,
206n2

Protorthoptera,
99
,
110

protowings,
77–79

protozoa,
5–6
,
64

Psocoptera,
110
,
208n14

pteridosperms,
82

pterodactyls,
xii
,
14
,
85

punctuated equilibrium,
23

pupa,
104–6
,
158

pupation chambers,
125–27

quartz,
63
,
117

queens,
1
,
147
,
149
,
163–64

quinine,
159

Quito,
170–71
,
173
,
175

rabbit crocodile,
119–20

radiation: solar,
37
; ultraviolet,
42

radio signals,
188

rain forest,
ix
,
3
,
42
,
90
; canopy,
82
,
84
,
177

Raphidioptera,
122
,
127

Raup, David,
8
,
17

reefs,
38–40
,
43
,
53
,
69
,
95
,
111

reproduction: asexual,
6
; indirect,
64
; organs of,
60
,
105

reproductive isolation,
6

reptiles,
3
,
18
,
90
,
116
,
121
,
167
; age of,
18
; first,
90
; giant fin-backed,
90
,
93–94
,
136
; lepidosaurian,
204n3
(ch. 5); thecodont,
94

resilience,
113
,
169
,
181
,
190

resins,
206n15

resistance,
5

respiration,
26
,
42
,
79–80
,
181
; aerobic,
25
,
190
; cuticular,
63
,
79
,
143
,
145
; tracheal,
xi
,
45–46
,
85
,
107
,
145