Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (128 page)

11 Allsen, “Military technology,” 278–9. The question of gunpowder and gunpowder makers is discussed below.

12 Rashiduddin Fazlullah,
Jami‘u’t-tawarikh
, 3 vols, ed. and trans. by W. M. Thackston (Cambridge, MA, 1998–9), vol. 2, 478.

13 Rossabi, M.,
Khubilai Khan
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1988), 87; Carrington, L. Goodrich and Fêng Chia-shêng, “The early developments of firearms in China,”
Isis
36 (1945–6): 118. Hsiao,
Yuan Dynasty
, 134. The source he cites is the
Yuan-shih chishih pen-mo
(‘Records of the history of the Yuan from the beginning to the end’), reprint (Peking: Chung-hua shu-chu, 1979), 4544–5.

14 The superior Myriarchy of Muslim Trebuchet Operators and Military Artisans (hui-hui p’ao-shou – chün-chiang shang wan-hu-fu). Farquhar, D. M.,
The Government of China under Mongolian Rule: A Reference Guide
(Stuttgart, 1990), 259.

15 Martin,
Rise of Chingis
, 118–19; Fennell, J.,
The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200–1304
(London and New York, 1983), 80.

16
Mission to Asia: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth Century,
trans. by a nun of Stanbrook Abbey, ed. C. Dawson (New York, 1955), 37–8.

17 Dawson,
Mission
, 37.

18 Allsen, T. T.,
Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
(Cambridge, 2001), 24.

19 Martinez, P. “Some notes on the Īl-Xānid army,”
Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
6 (1986): 146.

20 Allsen,
Imperialism
, 207.

21 Martinez, “Army,” 146–7.

22 Smith, “Mongol manpower,” 271–8.

23 Allsen,
Imperialism
, 203–206.

24 The term catapult is a generic name that includes all siege machines that do not use gunpowder. De Vries, K.,
Medieval Military Technology
(Peterborough, Ontario, 1998), 127.

25 Needham, J.,
Science and Civilization in China,
vol. 5, part 6:
Military Technology: Missiles and Sieges
(Cambridge, 1994), 213; Świętosławski, W.,
Arms and Armour of the Nomads of the Great Steppe in the Times of the Mongol Expansion (12th–14th Centuries)
(Łodź, 1999), 70.

26 Franke, H., “Siege and defense of towns in medieval China,” in
Chinese Ways in Warfare
, eds. F. A. Kierman and J. K. Fairbank (Cambridge, MA, 1974), 169, 195.

27 An illustration of the counterweight trebuchet can be found in the
Jami‘u’t-Tawarikh,
Tabriz, Iran 1306–14, currently in ms. Edinburgh University, 20. A copy can be seen in Nicolle, D.,
Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050–1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia,
2nd edn (London and Mechanicsburg, PA, 1999), 242, fig. 626m.

28 Allsen, “Military technology,” 270;
Yuan-shih chi-shih pen-mo
(‘Records of the history of the Yuan from the beginning to the end’), reprint (Peking:Chung-hua shu-chu,1979), 4544–5. In actual fact only the Yuan-shi tells about the two Muslim engineers sent to the court of Qubilai Khan. They ere both received with great honor and each has his biography written in the official history of the Yuan dynasty.

29 Raphael, K., “The al-Mansuri’s mangonel stone balls: some new evidence from the Mamluk siege of Akko (1291),” in
, the Excavations of 1991–1998 II, The Later Periods
, eds E. Stern and D. Syon (IAA Reports), forthcoming.

30 Świętosławski
, Arms and Armour,
70–1.

31 Franke, “Siege and defense,” 169.

32 Aconite is the plant from which aconitine, a particularly potent poison, is extracted. The
Merck Index
, 9th edn, 15, 113, defines “Aconitine” as coming from “Aconitum Napellus L., Ranunculaceae and other aconites.”

33 Franke, “Siege and defense,” 166.

34 Braudel, F.,
The Structures of Everyday Life
(London, 1981), 272–3; Knapp
,
R. G.,
The Chinese House
(Oxford, 1994), 46–7.

35 Franke, “Siege and defense,” 159.

36 Knapp, R. G.,
China’s Walled Cities
(Oxford, 2000), 25, 33.

37 Sen-Dou Chang, “The morphology of walled capitals” in
The City in Late Imperial China
, ed. G. W. Skinner (Stanford, 1977), 77.

38 Franke, H.,
Krieg und Krieger in Chinesischen Mittelalter
(
12.bis 14. Jahrhundert
), Band. 81 (Stuttgart, 2003), 212–13. Although there is evidence of wooden city towers, wood was on the whole not a common building material in fortifications in China. Farmer, E. L., “The hierachy of Ming city walls,” in
City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective
, ed. J. D. Tracy (Cambridge, 2000), 485.

39
Atā-Malik Juvainī,
History of the World-Conqueror
. 2 vols, trans. J. A. Boyle (Cambridge, MA, 1958), vol. 1, 106.

40 Boas, A. J.,
Crusader Archaeology
(London, 1999), 218–219.

41 Franke, “Siege and defense,” 193; Knapp,
Walled Cities
, 15–26. See especially p. 20.

42 Knapp,
Walled Cities
, 4.

43 Di Cosmo, N.,
Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History
(Cambridge, 2002), 138–40.

44 Knapp,
Walled Cities
, 6.

45 Parker, G., “The atillery fortress as an engine of European overseas expansion, 1480–1750,” in
City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective
, ed. J. D. Tracy (Cambridge, 2000), 388, n. 6.

46 Goodrich and Chia-shêng, “Firearms,” 114–23; Allsen, “Military technology,” 275. Khan, I. A., “The ole of the Mongols in the introduction of gunpowder and firearms in South Asia,”
Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology
, ed. J. Buchanan (Bath, 1996), 33–44; D. H. Martin,” The Mongol army,”
JRAS
(1943), 67; De Vries,
Military Technology
, 143; Chase, K.,
Firearms: A Global History
(Cambridge, 2003), 58; Needham, J.
Science and Civilization in China,
vol.5, part 7
: The Gunpowder Epic
(Cambridge, 1986), 117, 163.

47 Needham, J.
Science in Traditional China: A Comparative Perspective
(Hong Kong, 1981), 39.

48 Needham,
Gunpowder Epic
, 325, n. F.

49 Ibid., 573, n. C.

50 According to Martin gunpowder was used during the siege of Kaifeng in 1233–4. Martin, “Mongol army,” 67.

51 Khan, ”Firearms,” 33–44.

52 Allsen, “Military technology,” 275, 279. Allsen relies on
Yuanshi
, ch. 98, p. 2514., and on Hsiao,
Yuan Dynasty
, 80.

53 Franke,
Krieg und Krieger
, 213; May,
Art of War,
141.

54 Ayalon, D.,
Gunpowder and Fire Arms in the Mamluk Kingdom
, 2
^nd
edn (London, 1978), 9–44.

55 Juwaynī,
World-Conqueror
(Boyle), vol. 1, 7.

56 Juwaynī, ‘Alā’ al-Dīn ‘
Malik,
Ta‘rīkh –i jahān-gushā
, ed. M. M. Qazvini (Leiden, 1912–37), 96.

57 Rashīd al-Dīn
Allāh Abū ‘l-Khayr,
Jāmi
‘
al-tawārīkh
, ed. B. Karimi (Teheran, 1959), vol. 2, 686.

58 I would like to thank Prof. Shaul Shaked of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem for translating and analyzing the Persian sources and Prof. Michal Biran of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Department of Asian Studies and Middle Eastern History for her most valuable help in translating and analyzing of the Chinese sources and solving this enigma.

59
Yuanshi
, Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1978, ch. 98, p. 2514.

60 Needham,
Science
, vol. 5, part 6, 198.

61 Hong,
Weapons,
260–7.

62 Willey, P.,
The Castles of the Assassins
(London, 1963), 166.