Knowledge in the Time of Cholera (55 page)

Alabama, repeal of medical licensing laws,
68

allopathic/regular physicians: and authoritative testimony,
46–47
,
48
,
49
,
53
,
58
,
64
,
67
,
244
; authority of,
6
,
7
,
21
,
45–46
,
47
,
58
,
70
,
72
,
91–92
,
137
,
154
,
162
,
165
,
168
,
178
,
179
,
180
,
189
,
195–96
,
212
,
219
,
238
,
242
; and biomedical model,
7
; and boards of health,
113
,
115–16
,
128–29
,
133
,
135
,
136
,
137
,
138–47
; and class differences,
136–37
; debates with alternative medical movements,
12
,
17
,
19
,
23–24
,
48
,
51–54
,
57
,
67
,
80
,
227
,
261n3
,
261n6
; defeat of epistemic challengers,
21–22
; and democratic ideals,
5
,
29
,
107
,
108
; and discovery narratives,
28
,
157–58
; as dominant sect of physicians,
1
,
4–5
,
257n1
; and education reforms,
210
; effect of cholera epidemics on,
1
,
2
,
19
,
21
,
23
,
26
,
36–37
,
39
,
45
,
47
,
49
,
71
; and empiricism,
40
,
42
,
43
,
47
,
84
,
85
,
170–71
,
190
; and epistemic contests,
26–27
,
39
,
67
,
70
,
85
,
94
,
96
,
98
,
106
,
107
,
113
,
153
,
156
,
158
,
179
,
180
,
181
,
189
,
224
,
227
,
233
,
238
,
242
; homeopaths' relationship with,
21
,
26
,
27
,
28
,
55
,
57
,
67
,
77
,
79
,
80
,
81
,
87
,
93
,
96
,
97–100
,
101
,
102
,
106
,
113
,
135
,
164
,
179
,
213
,
215
,
225
,
245
,
262n6
; internal tensions of,
37
,
40
,
42–48
,
83
,
167
,
210
,
211
; and Koch's findings,
151
,
154
,
165–67
,
171
,
179
,
181
; and laboratory analysis,
210
,
239
,
243–44
,
246
; and legitimate knowledge,
45
,
46
; and medical epistemology,
42
,
45–48
,
80
,
83–84
,
88
,
90–93
,
100
,
106
,
191–96
,
224–25
,
243
; and medical licensing laws,
59–60
; narrative of emergent discovery,
165–67
,
171
,
177
,
178
,
179
,
181
,
225–26
; and Paris School,
83–85
,
101
,
171
,
172
; professional identity of,
194
,
221
,
223
,
229
; and proto-empiricism,
44–45
,
47
,
83
; and public health,
115
,
116
,
128
,
129
,
136–37
,
140
,
145
,
211
,
212
; and quantification,
89
; and radical empiricism,
27
,
80
,
85–90
,
92–94
,
98
,
100–102
,
106–7
,
125
,
165–67
,
181
,
189
,
191–92
,
225
,
233
,
244
,
262n3
; and rationalism,
37
,
40
,
42–47
,
83
,
85
,
87
,
88
,
89
,
90
,
93
,
191
,
224–25
,
233
,
244
,
262n6
; reaction to cholera epidemics,
32–35
,
40–42
,
48
,
49
,
53–54
,
74
,
76
,
77–78
,
79
,
90
; and sanitary interventions,
27
,
124
,
128
,
135–36
; and sense of status,
45
; and state legislatures,
1
,
26
,
38–39
,
59–60
,
70–71
,
96
,
145–46
,
189
,
208
,
213
,
218
,
226
,
233
,
236
,
243
; styles of reasoning,
59

alternative medical movements: on allopathic physicians,
4–5
,
257n1
; contributions of,
5
,
49
; debates with allopathic/regular physicians,
12
,
17
,
19
,
23–24
,
48
,
51–54
,
57
,
67
,
80
,
227
,
261n3
,
261n6
; dismissing of,
6
; and education reform,
216
,
217
; emergence of,
26
; endurance of,
238
; and epistemic closure,
238
; and epistemic contests,
21
,
22
,
26
,
37–39
,
48
,
49
,
59
,
70
,
71–72
,
73
,
80
,
85
,
224
,
227
,
230
,
233
,
235
,
243
; and epistemological change,
234–35
; epistemologies of,
63
,
64–67
,
218
,
234
; government inclusion of,
4
,
93
,
102–5
,
213
,
234
,
262–63n7
; identification with science,
258n5
; and repeal of licensing laws,
1
,
68–69
; and state legislatures,
1
,
68–69
,
70
,
71
,
213
,
218
,
224
,
233
.
See also
homeopaths and homeopathy; Thomsonism

American Institute of Homeopathy (AIH),
95
,
125
,
163
,
164–65

American
Medical Association (AMA): and boards of health,
212
; Code of Ethics,
96–97
,
98
,
99
,
101
,
214
; and education reform,
80
,
95
,
103–4
,
205
,
207
,
216
; and epistemic closure,
108
,
238
,
246
; and epistemological problem of adjudication,
80
,
81
,
94
,
95
,
98
,
100
,
106
,
225
,
233
; as exclusive,
27
,
95–98
,
100
,
102–7
,
145
,
213
,
244
; goals of,
80–81
; and no consultation clause,
96
,
98
,
101
,
103–4
,
105
,
106
,
143
,
144
,
214
,
225
,
233
; opposition to government oversight of medical practice,
4
,
26
,
29
,
102
,
189
,
212
,
236–38
,
243
,
265n5
; and organizational infrastructure,
8
,
80
,
81–83
,
95
,
100
,
102
,
106–8
,
225
,
226
,
233
,
243
,
257n3
; and professional power,
2
,
13
,
22
,
26
,
95
,
108
,
135
,
137
,
226–27
,
236
; and quackery,
95–97
,
98
,
99–102
,
105
,
106
,
214
,
225
; regional character of,
262n5
; and Rockefeller Foundation,
227
,
236
; Statement of Principles,
214
; strategy of non-dialogue,
29
,
102
,
217
; and thought collective,
107
; and truth-wins-out narratives,
8
.
See also
allopathic/regular physicians

American Medical Times
,
136

American Public Health Association (APHA),
135

animacular theory,
91–92

anticommunist ideology, and health insurance,
237

antiseptics,
239

Aristotle,
252

Army Medical Board,
104
,
105

atmospheric theories,
92
,
160

auscultation,
84

authority: of allopathic/regular physicians,
6
,
7
,
21
,
45–46
,
47
,
58
,
70
,
72
,
91–92
,
137
,
154
,
162
,
165
,
168
,
178
,
179
,
180
,
189
,
195–96
,
212
,
219
,
238
,
242
; challenges to,
48–49
,
62
; and medical professionalization,
1
,
2
,
4
,
5
,
6
,
7
,
8
,
12–13
,
28
,
37–39
,
45
,
185
,
213–14
,
219
,
226
,
236
.
See also
epistemic authority

autopsy,
84

Bacon, Francis,
58

bacteriological paradigm: and allopathic/regular physicians,
2
,
21
,
22
,
151
,
154
,
157
,
158
,
161
,
162
,
165
,
166–67
,
171
,
177–78
,
179
,
180
,
182
,
183
,
189
; and cholera epidemics,
7
,
24–26
,
148
,
149
,
150
,
151
,
183
,
187–88
,
189
,
224
,
240
,
260n20
; and definition of disease,
13
,
193
,
240
; and diagnostic testing,
189
; and epistemic closure,
217
; and Gates,
200–201
; and German-American network,
154
,
156
,
158
,
171–73
,
176–77
,
179
; and homeopathy,
157
,
161
,
162
,
163
,
164
,
180
,
181
,
215
; and Koch's findings,
152
,
154
,
157
,
158
,
166–71
,
172
,
178
,
179
,
180
,
183
,
192
; and medical authority,
21
,
24
,
191
; and medical education,
28
,
194
,
203
; and medical professionalization,
191
,
195
,
208
,
258n5
; and Progressive Era,
258n5
; and promissory practice,
158
,
168–71
; and public health,
152
,
169–70
,
195
,
240–41
; and quarantine measures,
184
,
185
,
186
; and truth-wins-out narrative,
6
,
7
,
9
,
24
,
239
; and vaccines,
24
; and Welch,
167
,
172
,
176
,
186
.
See also
laboratory analysis

Baker, Jean H.,
62

Barker, Fordyce,
128–29