Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945 (68 page)

3.
THE PATH TO CONFRONTATION

1. Academia Historica archives, Taipei: T-172–1: 1068 (Lewis report to Nanjing).

2. The classic scholarly indictment of the Nationalists’ record before 1937 is Lloyd C. Eastman,
The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927–1937
(Cambridge, MA, 1974). For a more positive and revisionist interpretation, see Frederic Wakeman, Jr. and Richard Louis Edmonds, eds.,
Reappraising Republican China
(Cambridge, 2000).

3. Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (RG08, Box 91, folder 21): Katharine W. Hand [KH]: letter of September 14, 1935.

4. On the Chinese Maritime Customs, see the special edition of
Modern Asian Studies
, 40:3 (July 2006).

5. David A. Titus, “Introduction,” in James W. Morley, ed.,
The Final Confrontation: Japan’s Negotiations with the United States, 1941
(New York, 1994), xxii.

6. Two biographies have examined the life of Song Meiling in depth: Hannah Pakula,
The
Last Empress: Madame Chiang Kai-shek and the Birth of Modern China
(New York, 2009), and Laura Tyson Li,
Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China’s Eternal First Lady
(New York, 2006).

7.
Documents on British Policy Overseas
(DBPO), series 2, vol. 21 (Far Eastern Affairs, 1936–1938), (October 5, 1937), 368–369.

8. On Dai, see Frederic Wakeman Jr.,
Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service
(Berkeley, CA, 2003).

9. Parks M. Coble,
Facing Japan: Chinese Politics and Japanese Imperialism, 1931–1937
(Cambridge, MA, 1991), 33–34.

10. Rana Mitter,
The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2000), 171.

11. Ibid., 112.

12. Coble,
Facing Japan
, 25.

13. Donald Jordan,
China’s Trial by Fire: The Shanghai War of 1932
(Ann Arbor, MI, 2001); Coble,
Facing Japan
, 39–50.

14. Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong), “Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society” (March 1926),
Selected Writings
(Calcutta, 1967).

15. William C. Kirby, “The Chinese War Economy,” in James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds.,
China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945
(Armonk, NY, 1992), 187–189; Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–45
(London, 2003), 151, 132, 156–157, 136, 143.

16. John Garver, “China’s Wartime Diplomacy,” in Hsiung and Levine, eds.,
China’s Bitter Victory
, 6.

17. Coble,
Facing Japan
, 113.

18. Ibid., 217. On Du Zhongyuan, see Rana Mitter, “Manchuria in Mind: Press, Propaganda, and Northeast China in the Age of Empire, 1930–1937,” in Mariko Asano Tamanoi, ed.,
Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire
(Honolulu, 2005).

19. Wang Ching-wei [Wang Jingwei],
China’s Problems and Their Solutions
(Shanghai, 1934), 104, 113, 117.

20. “How to Analyze Classes” (October 1933), MZD, vol. 4, 546.

21. On this period, see Stephen C. Averill,
Revolution in the Highlands: China’s Jinggangshan Base Area
(Lanham, MD, 2005).

22. Sun Shuyun,
The Long March: The True History of Communist China’s Founding Myth
(London, 2007), 169.

23. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 183–188. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 125–137.

24. On the Xi’an Incident, see Taylor,
Generalissimo
, 117–137.

25. James M. Bertram,
First Act in China: The Story of the Sian Mutiny
(New York, 1938), 118.

26. Bertram,
First Act
, 122.

27. Michael Sheng,
Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States
(Princeton, NJ, 1997), 35–39; Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 171.

28.
Foreign Relations of the United States
[hereafter FRUS], 1936, vol. IV (January 12, 1937), 453.

29. James B. Crowley,
Japan’s Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy
(Princeton, NJ, 1966).

30. Shimada Toshihiko, “Designs on North China, 1933–1937,” in James W. Morley, ed.,
The China Quagmire: Japan’s Expansion on the Asian Continent, 1933–1941
(New York, 1983), 196.

31. Shimada, “Designs,” 174–176.

32. Ibid., 199–201.

33. Coble,
Facing Japan
, 366–368.

4.
THIRTY-SEVEN DAYS IN SUMMER: THE OUTBREAK OF WAR

1. Parks M. Coble,
Facing Japan: Chinese Politics and Japanese Imperialism, 1931–1937
(Cambridge, MA, 1991), 368. Marjorie Dryburgh,
North China and Japanese Expansion 1933–1937: Regional Power and the National Interest
(Richmond, UK, 2000), 142–151.

2. FRUS, 1937, vol. III (July 2, 1937), 128.

3. Zhou Tiandu, “Cong 7.7 shibian qianhou Jiang Jieshi riji kan ta de KangRi zhuzhang” [“Chiang Kai-shek’s Advocacy of Resistance to Japan as Seen from His Diary around July 7, 1937”],
KangRi
zhanzheng yanjiu
2 (2008), 137.

4. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 138.

5. Yang Tianshi,
Zhaoxun zhenshi de Jiang Jieshi
[
Searching for the Real Chiang Kai-shek
] (Taiyuan, 2008), 219.

6. Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945
(London, 2003), 188.

7. Ibid., 190.

8. Yang,
Zhaoxun
, 221. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 138.

9.
Shenbao
, July 9, 1937.

10. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 146.

11. On German influence in the army, see Chang Jui-te, “The Nationalist Army on the Eve of the War,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea and Hans van de Ven,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945
(Stanford, CA, 2011).

12. Dryburgh,
North China
, chapter 3.

13. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 193.

14. In the year leading up to Pearl Harbor, some 70 percent of Japan’s government spending would be on the military. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper,
Forgotten Armies: Britain’s Asian Empire and the War with Japan
(London, 2004), 3.

15. John Hunter Boyle,
China and Japan at War, 1937–1945: The Politics of Collaboration
(Stanford, CA, 1972), 144.

16. Boyle,
China and Japan at War
, 51–52.

17.
North-China Herald
[hereafter NCH], July 14, 1937 (original report in
North-China Daily News
, July 10, 1937).

18. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 138.

19. FRUS, 1937, vol. III (July 12, 1937), 138.

20. Cai Dejin, ed.,
Zhou Fohai riji
[
Zhou Fohai’s Diary
], 2 vols. (Beijing, 1986) [hereafter ZFHR], July 14, 1937.

21. ZFHR, July 16, 17, and 18, 1937.

22. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 141.

23. NCH, July 14, 1937 (original report from July 6, 1937), 46.

24. FRUS, 1937, vol. III (July 10, 1937), 134.

25. NCH, July 21, 1937 (report from July 15, 1937), 103.

26. Ibid. (report from July 13, 1937), 103.

27. Ibid. (reports from July 13 and 18, 1937), 104.

28. Ibid. (report from July 13, 1937), 103.

29. Ibid. (original report from July 14, 1937), 104.

30. Ibid., 86.

31. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 188–189, 194.

32. Ibid., 194.

33. NCH, August 4, 1937 (original report from July 29, 1937), 177.

34. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 144.

35. “Telegram of July 8 to Chairman Chiang . . .” (July 8, 1937), MZD, vol. V, 695.

36. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 146.

37. “No more negotiations if Chiang Kai-shek refuses to compromise” (July 20, 1937), MZD, vol. V, 701.

38. “Convey to Chiang Kai-shek the plan to reorganize the Red Army” (July 28, 1937), MZD, vol. V, 711.

39. Lyman P. Van Slyke, “The Chinese Communist Movement during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945,” in Lloyd E. Eastman et al.,
The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949
(Cambridge, 1991), 181. Stephen Mackinnon, “The Defense of the Central Yangtze,” in Peattie, Drea, and Van de Ven,
Battle for China
, 205.

40. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 200.

41. “Our Views Regarding the Problem of National Defense” (August 4, 1937), MZD, vol. VI, 10–11.

42. Zhou, “Cong 7.7 shibian,” 148.

43. “The Red Army’s Operational Tasks, and Principles Relating to the Use of Our Troops” (August 1, 1937), MZD, vol. VI, 5.

44. NCH, July 28, 1937 (original report from July 21, 1937), 133.

45. Ibid., August 4, 1937 (original report from July 29, 1937), 173.

46. No. 2 National Archives of China, “Kangzhan baofa hou Nanjing guomin zhengfu guofang lianxi huiyi jilu” [“Records of the National Government’s National Defense Liaison Committee before the Outbreak of the War of Resistance”],
Minguo dang’an
1:43 (1996), 31.

47. Yang,
Zhaoxun
, 220.

48. “Kangzhan baofa,” 31.

49. Ibid., 33.

50. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 197.

5.
THE BATTLE FOR SHANGHAI

1. NCH, November 3, 1937 (original report from 28 October 1937).

2. Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945
(London, 2003), 197.

3. Ibid.

4. NCH, August 11, 1937, 217.

5. Ibid., 231.

6. Ibid., August 18, 1937, 267 (original report from August 12, 1937).

7. Ibid., 259.

8. SMA (Shanghai Municipal Archive), U1–16–217, p. 23.

9. NCH, August 18, 1937.

10. SMA U1–16–217, p. 29.

11. NCH, August 18, 1937 (original report from August 15, 1937).

12. Ibid., September 29, 1937.

13. Ibid., October 20, 1937, 93.

14. Yang Tianshi,
Zhaoxun zhenshi de Jiang Jieshi
[
Searching for the Real Chiang Kai-shek
] (Taiyuan, 2008), 229.

15. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 154–155.

16. Rana Mitter,
The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2000), chapter 5.

17. Yang,
Zhaoxun
, 231.

18. NCH, September 15, 1937 (report from September 12, 1937), 394.

19. Ibid., September 28, 1937, 2.

20.
Documents on British Policy Overseas
(DBPO), series 2, vol. 21 (Far Eastern Affairs, 1936–1938) (November 11, 1937), 470–471.

21. DBPO, series 2, vol. 21 (November 11, 1937), 470–471.

22. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 215–216.

23. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 149.

24. ZFHR, September 27, 1937, October 3, 1937, and October 23, 1937.

25. NCH, October 2, 1937, 17–18.

26. Ibid., October 13, 1937 (report from October 6, 1937).

27. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 216.

28. Ibid., 213.

29.
Zhongyang ribao
, November 9, 1937.

30. NCH, November 15, 1937, 255.

31.
Zhonghua ribao
, November 21, 1937.

32. ZFHR, November 16, 1937.

33.
Zhonghua ribao
, November 28, 1937.

34. Taylor,
Generalissimo
, 150.

35. DBPO, series 2, vol. 21 (December 17, 1937), 593–594.