Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945 (69 page)

36. Ibid. (December 18, 1937), 598–603.

37. W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood
, Journey to a War
(London, 1938), 240.

38. ZFHR, December 11, 1937. For a rich account of the fall of Shanghai and life in the period after occupation, see Christian Henriot and Wen-hsin Yeh, eds.,
In the Shadow of the Rising Sun: Shanghai under Japanese Occupation
(Cambridge, 2004).

6.
REFUGEES AND RESISTANCE

1. Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (RG08, Box 173, folder 7), M. M. Rue papers, “Flight” (account of Mrs. Yang), 2–3.

2. Ibid., 4.

3. Stephen R. Mackinnon,
Wuhan 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2008), 45–54.

4. “Flight” (account of Mrs. Yang), 5.

5. Ibid. On the refugee crisis, see also MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938;
R. Keith Schoppa,
In a Sea of Bitterness: Refugees during the Sino-Japanese War
(Cambridge, MA, 2011); Diana Lary,
The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945
(Cambridge, 2010).

6. Marvin Williamsen, “The Military Dimension, 1937–1941,” in James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds.,
China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945
(Armonk, NY, 1992), 137.

7. Du Zhongyuan, “Dao Datong qu” [“Going to Datong”] (September 23, 1937), in Du Yi and Du Ying, eds.,
Huan wo heshan: Du Zhongyuan wenji
[
Return our Rivers and Mountains: The Collected Essays of Du Zhongyuan
] [hereafter DZY] (Shanghai, 1998), 257.

8. Du Zhongyuan, “Dao Datong qu,” 257–258.

9. Du Zhongyuan, “You Taiyuan dao Fengzhen” [“From Taiyuan to Fengzhen”] (September 26, 1937), DZY, 260.

10. DBPO, series 2, vol. 21 (January 31, 1938), 676–677.

11. Ibid. (February 2, 1938), 679–680.

12. Ibid. (February 3, 1938), 682–684.

13. Du Zhongyuan, “You Taiyuan dao Fengzhen,” 264.

14. “Opinions Regarding Strategic Deployment in North China after the Fall of Taiyuan” (October 13, 1937), MZD, vol. VI, 93.

15. “Urgent Tasks of the Chinese Revolution Following the Establishment of Guomindang-Communist Cooperation” (September 29, 1937), MZD, vol. VI, 71.

16. “Guerrilla warfare should be carried out mainly on the flanks in the rear of the enemy” (October 23, 1937), MZD, vol. VI, 107.

17. MacKinnon,
Wuhan
, 18.

18. Katharine Hand, “Extracts from a Diary” (December 25, 1937).

19. Du Zhongyuan, “Jing Taiyuan” [“Going through Taiyuan”], DZY, 262.

20. Joshua H. Howard,
Workers at War: Labor in China’s Arsenals, 1937–1953
(Stanford, CA, 2004).

21. Yang Lin et al.,
Qu da houfang: Zhongguo kangzhan neiqian shilu
[
Going to the Interior: True Stories of the Journey Inland during the War of Resistance
] (Shanghai, 2005) [hereafter QDHF], 56.

22. Ibid., 68.

23. Ibid., 153–154.

24. Lu Liu, “A Whole Nation Walking: The ‘Great Retreat’ in the War of Resistance, 1937–1945,” PhD diss., University of California, San Diego, 202–203, 210, 250, 287.

25. “Flight” (account of Mrs. Yang), 5–6.

26. Du Zhongyuan, “Jing Taiyuan,” 261.

27. Du Zhongyuan, “You Taiyuan dao Fengzhen,” 265.

28. Hsi-sheng Ch’i, “The Military Dimension, 1942–1945,” in Hsiung and Levine,
China’s Bitter Victory
, 180, cites an archival document suggesting some 95.45 million refugees over the 1937–1945 period.

7.
MASSACRE AT NANJING

1. Iechika Ryôko (tr. Wang Xueping), “Cong ‘Jiang Jieshi riji’ jiedu 1937 nian 12 yue de Nanjing xingshi” [“The Situation in Nanjing in December 1937 from a Reading of Chiang Kai-shek’s Diary”],
Minguo dang’an
2 (2009), 111.

2. NCH, August 15, 1937, 262.

3. Du Zhongyuan, “Dao Datong qu” [“Going to Datong”] (September 23, 1937), in Du Yi and Du Ying, eds.,
Huan wo heshan: Du Zhongyuan wenji
[
Return our Rivers and Mountains: The Collected Essays of Du Zhongyuan
] [hereafter DZY] (Shanghai, 1998), 258–259.

4. ZFHR, August 15, 1937.

5. NCH, November 20, 1937.

6. Ibid., December 1, 1937 (original report from November 25, 1937), 322.

7. William C. Kirby, “Engineering China: Birth of the Developmental State, 1928–1937,” in Wen-hsin Yeh, ed.,
Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond
(Berkeley, CA, 2000), 140.

8. Fujiwara Akira, “The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretative Overview,” in Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, ed.,
The Nanking Atrocity 1937–38: Complicating the Picture
(New York, 2007), 35–36, 30. Hattori Satoshi with Edward J. Drea, “Japanese Operations from July to December 1937,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds.,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945
(Stanford, CA, 2011), 175.

9. NCH, December 1, 1937 (original report from November 25, 1937), 333.

10. Margherita Zanasi, “Exporting Development: The League of Nations and Republican China,”
Comparative Studies in Society and History
49:1 (January 2007).

11. John Rabe,
The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe
, ed. Edwin Wickert, trans. John E. Woods (New York, 2000).

12. Ibid., 11.

13. The idea was based on a similar zone that had been established earlier in Shanghai by a French Jesuit priest, Robert Jacquinot. Marcia R. Ristaino,
The Jacquinot Safety Zone: Wartime Refugees in Shanghai
(Stanford, CA, 2008), chapters 4 and 5.

14. Rabe,
Good Man
, 53.

15. Ibid., 46–48.

16. Iechika, “Nanjing xingshi,” 111.

17. Ibid.

18. Tom Buchanan,
East Wind: China and the British Left
(Oxford, 2012), 62–63.

19. Iechika, “Nanjing xingshi.”

20. F. Tillman Durdin, “All Captives Slain,”
New York Times
(December 18, 1937).

21. No. 2 National Archives of China, ed., “Cheng Ruifang riji” [“The Diary of Cheng Ruifang”],
Minguo dang’an
4 (2004) [hereafter CRF], (December 10, 1937), 26.

22. Minnie Vautrin diary in Zhang Kaiyuan, ed.,
Eyewitnesses to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing
(Armonk, NY, 2001) [hereafter MV], 340.

23. On premodern modes of philanthropy in China, see Joanna Handlin Smith,
The Art of Doing Good: Charity in Late Ming China
(Berkeley, CA, 2009); Kathryn Edgerton-Tarpley,
Tears from Iron: Cultural Responses to Famine in Nineteenth-Century China
(Berkeley, CA, 2009).

24. CRF (December 10, 1937), 27.

25. See Ruth Rogaski,
Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-Port China
(Berkeley, CA, 2004).

26. Akira Iriye, “The Role of the United States Embassy in Tokyo,” in Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Okamoto, eds.,
Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-American Relations, 1931–1941
(New York, 1973), 119–120.

27. CRF (December 12, 1937), 27.

28. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 151–152.

29. Durdin, “All Captives Slain” (December 18, 1937).

30. CRF (December 14, 1937), 28.

31. Ibid. (December 18, 1937), 30.

32. MV, 362.

33. Rabe,
Good Man
, 81.

34. George Fitch diary in Zhang Kaiyuan,
Eyewitnesses
[hereafter GF] (December 18, 1937), 92.

35. Ibid. (December 22, 1937), 93.

36. Ibid. (December 23, 1937), 94.

37. Rabe,
Good Man
, 77.

38. GF (December 19, 1937), 92.

39. MV (December 17, 1937), 358.

40. Ibid. (December 19, 1937), 361.

41. Ibid. (December 17, 1937), 359, CRF (December 17, 1937), 29.

42. MV (December 27, 1937), 366.

43. CRF (December 19, 21, and 22, 1937), 30–32.

44. Ibid. (December 20, 1937), 31.

45. Ibid. (January 1, 1938), 10.

46. Rabe,
Good Man
, 92.

47. CRF (December 15, 1937), 28.

48. Ibid. (December 26 and 29, 1937), 33–34.

49. Ibid. (January 3, 1938), 11.

50. Neil Boister and Robert Cryer, eds.,
The Tokyo International Military Tribunal: A Reappraisal
(Oxford, 2008), 191.

51. A variety of rigorous studies have emerged in recent years that give a clear account of what the historically valid parameters of debate on these and related questions are. Among them are Wakabayashi,
The Nanking Atrocity;
Joshua Fogel, ed.,
The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography
(Berkeley, CA, 2000); Takashi Yoshida,
The Making of the “Rape of Nanking”: History and Memory in Japan, China, and the United States
(New York, 2006); and Daqing Yang, “Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing,”
American Historical Review
104:3, 1,999.

52. GF, n.d., 84.

53. Ibid., December 19, 1937, 92.

54. Ibid., December 22, 1937, 94.

55. CRF (December 29, 1937), 34.

56. For the initial phase of life after the occupation of Nanjing, see Timothy Brook,
Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
(Cambridge, MA, 2005), chapter 5.

57. CRF (January 2, 1938), 11.

58. Durdin, “All Captives Slain” (December 18, 1937).

59. Ibid.

60. FRUS, 1937, vol. III (December 14, 1937), 806.

61. Ibid., 1938, vol. III (January 11, 1938), 13.

62. NCH, December 29, 1937 (original report from December 25, 1937), 477, 484.

63. On Pan-Asianism, see Eri Hotta,
Pan-Asianism and Japan’s War, 1931–1945
(Basingstoke, 2007).

64. Iechika, “Nanjing xingshi,” 113.

65. Ibid., 114.

66. Ibid.

8.
THE BATTLE OF TAIERZHUANG

1. W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood
, Journey to a War
(London, 1938), 39.

2. See Stephen R. MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2008), chapter 1.

3. Ibid., 11–13.

4. John Hunter Boyle,
China and Japan at War, 1937–1945: The Politics of Collaboration
(Stanford, CA, 1972), 78–81.

5. MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938
, 20–28.

6. Ibid., 74–75.

7. Ibid., 68–69.

8. Marvin Williamsen, “The Military Dimension, 1937–1941,” in James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds.,
China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945
(Armonk, NY, 1992), 139; MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938
, 34.

9. Stephen Mackinnon, “The Defense of the Central Yangtze,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War
(Stanford, CA, 2011), 194.

10. “Duiri kangzhan yu bendang qiantu” (“On the War of Resistance against Japan and the Future of this Party”), ZT (April 1, 1938), vol. 15, 197.

11. On Li Zongren and the role of Guangxi, see Graham Hutchings, “A Province at War: Guangxi During the Sino-Japanese Conflict, 1937–1945,”
China Quarterly
108 (December 1986).

12. Chang Jui-te, “Chiang Kai-shek’s Coordination by Personal Directives,” in Stephen R. MacKinnon, Diana Lary, and Ezra Vogel, eds.,
China at War: Regions of China, 1937–1945
(Stanford, CA, 2007), 78–79.

13. Du Yi and Du Ying, eds.,
Huan wo heshan: Du Zhongyuan wenji
[
Return Our Rivers and Mountains: The Collected Essays of Du Zhongyuan
] [hereafter DZY] (Shanghai, 1998), “Jiang taigong,” 273.

14. Ibid., 274.

15. Stephen Mackinnon, “Defense of the Central Yangtze,” 1919.

16. Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945
(London, 2003), 224.