Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (145 page)

43.
Interview with Zhang Hanzhi, October 21, 2006.

44.
Interview with an official familiar with Mao Yuanxin's views, January 2006.

45.
DXPNP-2
, April 6, 1976.

46.
WNZEL
, p. 308.

47.
Since even high-ranking Chinese did not know Deng's whereabouts, rumors spread among foreigners that Deng had fled to Guangzhou, where he was being protected by his old friend and supporter General Xu Shiyou, head of the Guangzhou Military Region from January 1974 to February 1980. These rumors were reported not only in Hong Kong papers, but also by some Western analysts. See Garside,
Coming Alive
, p. 140; and Harrison E. Salisbury,
The New Emperors: China in the Era of Mao and Deng
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1992), p. 367. Deng's daughter later corrected this misunderstanding.

48.
DXPNP-2
, April 7, 1976; Wu De,
Wu De koushu
, pp. 216–218.

49.
Zweig, “The Peita Debate on Education and the Fall of Teng Hsiao-p'ing,” 158.

50.
MZDZ
, 2:1778.

51.
Mao's doctor, Li Zhisui, reports that Mao wrote these words for Hua on April 30. See Zhisui Li, with the editorial assistance of Anne F. Thurston,
The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao's Personal Physician
(New York: Random House, 1994), p. 5.

52.
DXPNP-2
, April 7, 9, 1976.

53.
Ibid., July 7, September 9, 1976.

54.
Ibid., September 9, 1976.

55.
Wu De,
Wu De koushu
, p. 197.

56.
Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, p. 390.

57.
DXPNP-2
, September 9, 1976.

58.
Roxane Witke,
Comrade Chiang Ch'ing
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1977), p. 449. For general accounts of the background and process of the Gang of Four's arrest, see
Guoshi
, vol. 8, pp. 647–716; Wu Jianhua, “Fensui ‘sirenbang’ cehua shishi guocheng”
(The Plan to Overthrow the “Gang of Four” and the Process of Its Implementation),
Zhonghua ernu
, nos. 10 and 11 (2001), reprinted in Li Haiwen,
Zhonggong zhongda lishi shijian qinli ji (1949–1980)
(Memories of Personal Experiences during the Important Historical Events of the Chinese Communist Party [1949–1980]), 2 vols. (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 2006), 2:248–281;
YJZGJSK;
and Wu De,
Wu De koushu.
For English accounts, see Yan and Gao,
Turbulent Decade
, pp. 519–528; Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 536–594; and Richard Baum,
Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 40–45.

59.
YJZGJSK
, pp. 363–364; Li, with the editorial assistance of Thurston,
The Private Life of Chairman Mao
, pp. 3–30, 615–625; and interview with Ji Humin, son of Ji Dengkui, October 2007.

60.
YJZGJSK
, p. 367.

61.
Ibid., pp. 369–370.

62.
Yan and Gao,
Turbulent Decade
, p. 524; Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
(China from 1976 to 1981) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2008), pp. 4–5; Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 551–594.

63.
YJZGJSK
, p. 368. Western and Chinese scholars have different views as to whether Hua or Ye took the initiative and who played a more important role. While Hua was in office, the Chinese press emphasized his role, but after he was removed, the same press emphasized the role of Ye. Clearly both played a significant part. For a discussion of the issue, see Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 536–594.

64.
YJZGJSK
, pp. 377–380.

65.
Garside,
Coming Alive
, p. 154, and Salisbury,
The New Emperors
, p. 274, present unverified reports that Mao Yuanxin made a run for it and was captured when trying to board a plane for the Northeast, but Fan Shuo, who had access to more party documents, does not mention such rumors, which also appeared in Hong Kong journals
Ming bao
and
Zhengming
, along with dramatic versions of the capture of Jiang Qing, summarized by Garside,
Coming Alive
, pp. 152–167. These too have not been verified by party historians. See also Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, p. 580.

66.
Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, p. 582.

67.
Roderick MacFarquhar,
The Politics of China: The Eras of Mao and Deng
, 2d ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 312.

68.
For the background of the workers' militia, see Elizabeth J. Perry,
Patrolling the Revolution: Worker Militias, Citizenship, and the Modern Chinese State
(Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006).

69.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 11–14; Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 582–590.

70.
Garside,
Coming Alive
, pp. 154–167.

71.
DXPNP-2
, October 21, 1976; Garside,
Coming Alive
, pp. 165–166.

72.
Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 586–587.

73.
DXPNP-2
, October 26, 1976.

74.
Ibid., October 1976, after the smashing of the Gang of Four.

75.
DXPCR
, pp. 440–441.

76.
DXPNP-2
, October 7, 10, 1976, quoted in Baum,
Burying Mao
, p. 43.

77.
DXPNP-2
, December 7, 12 13, 14, 24, 1976.

78.
Ibid., p. 154, sometime after December 24, 1976.

6. Return under Hua

1.
U.S. Dept. of State, “Ambassador Gates' Discussion in Peking,” DNSA, doc. CH00407, Secret, Action Memorandum, April 22, 1976.

2.
An insightful analysis of the two years under Hua can be found in Cheng Meidong, “1976–1978 Zhongguo shehui de yanhua: Jianlun Hua Guofeng de shiqi zhengzhi huanjing de biandong yu shiyijie sanzhong quanhui de zhaokai” (The Evolution of Chinese Society, 1976–1978: A Second Discussion of Changes in the Political Environment during the Period of Hua Guofeng and the Opening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee),
Xuexi yu tansuo
, no. 6 (2008): 32–41. I am indebted to Warren Sun for providing evidence of Hua's support for reform.

3.
At other levels and in other sectors, such as the economic sector, personal authority remained strong. See, for example, Andrew G. Walder,
Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

4.
Biographers of Ye Jianying claim that he had the primary role in planning the arrest of the Gang of Four. In assessing the views of party historians who give more credit to Ye and those who give more credit to Hua, however, Frederick Teiwes and Warren Sun give great credit to Hua: he was the person in charge and took the initiative. See Teiwes and Sun,
The End of the Maoist Era: Chinese Politics during the Twilight of the Cultural Revolution, 1972–1976
(Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2007), pp. 591–594. A similar conclusion can be found in Akio Takahara, “Gendai chugokushi no saikento: Kakokuho to Toshohei, soshite 1978-nen no kakkisei ni tsuite” (A Reexamination of Modern Chinese History: On the Epoch-making of Hua Guofeng and Deng Xiaoping in 1978),
Toa
, no. 495 (September 2008): 32–40.

5.
See, for example, Yu Guangyuan, “Wo dui Hua Guofeng de yinxiang” (My Impression of Hua Guofeng),
Lingdao wencui
, no. 16 (August 2008): 68–70.

6.
There have been various translations of the “two whatevers.” I have followed the official translation used in
SWDXP-2
, p. 137.

7.
Interview with Cheng Zhongyuan, October 2005.

8.
DXPNP-2
, October 1976, after the arrest of the Gang of Four.

9.
Richard Baum,
Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 43.

10.
YJYNP
, December 12, 1976.

11.
Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo
(The Complete Story of the Discussion on Practice Is the Sole Criterion for Testing Truth) (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1997), pp. 331–332.

12.
Interview with Cheng Zhongyuan, October 2005.

13.
CYZ
, 2:1447–1450.

14.
Teiwes and Sun,
End of the Maoist Era
, pp. 238–240.

15.
Cheng Meidong, “1976–1978 Zhongguo shehui de yanhua,” 34.

16.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
(China from 1976 to 1981) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2008), p. 43.

17.
Ibid., p. 44.

18.
CYZ
, 2:1447–1448;
CYNP
, March 17, 1977. Chen Yun presented the same message to the Shanghai delegation. See
CYNP
, March 13, 1977; Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, p. 44;
DXPNP
-2, March 10–20, 1977; and Shen Baoxiang,
Zhenli biaozhun wenti taolun shimo
, p. 4.

19.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 44–45. See also
DXPNP-2
, March 10–20, 1977.

20.
CYNP
, March 17, 1977.

21.
DXPNP-2
, March 10–20, 1977; Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 45–46.

22.
DXPNP-2
, April 7, 1977.

23.
Deng presented a more complete version of these views to the Third Plenum of the Tenth Central Committee on July 21, 1977. See his “Mao Zedong Thought Must Be Correctly Understood as an Integral Whole,”
SWDXP-2
, pp. 55–60.

24.
DXPNP-2
, April 10, 1976.

25.
Ibid., after April 10, 1976.

26.
For example, Li Desheng, “Weida de zhuanzhe, lishi de biran: Huiyi shiyijie sanzhong quanhui de zhaokai” (A Great Turning Point, The Inevitability of History: Recollections on the Opening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee), in Yu Guangyuan et al.,
Gaibian Zhongguo mingyun de 41 tian: Zhongyang gongzuo huiyi, shiyijie sanzhong quanhui qinliji
(The Four Days That Changed the Fate of China: A Record of My Experience at the Central Work Conference of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee) (Shenzhen: Haitian chubanshe, 1998), p. 230.

27.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, p. 46.

28.
DXPNP-2
, May 24, 1977;
SWDXP-2
, May 24, 1977, pp. 51–52.

29.
“Zhongfa shiwu hao—Deng Xiaoping zhi Hua Guofeng de liangfeng xin yi (yijiuqiqi nian wuyue sanri yi Deng Xiaoping you Wang Dongxing zhuan Hua Guofeng de xin)” (Document No. 15, letter from Deng Xiaoping to Hua Guofeng, passed on by Wang Dongxing on May 3, 1977), unpublished document, available in the Fairbank Collection, Fung Library, Harvard University.

30.
DXPNP-2
, April 10, 1977.

31.
Cheng Zhongyuan, Wang Yuxiang, and Li Zhenghua,
1976–1981 nian de Zhongguo
, pp. 44–45; see also
DXPNP-2
, March 10–20, 1977.