The Coming Plague (124 page)

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Authors: Laurie Garrett

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103
C. Marwick, “French, U.S. Viral Isolates Compared in Search for Cause of AIDS,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
251 (1984): 2901–09.
104
L. G. Gürtler, D. Wernicke, J. Eberle, et al., “Increase in Prevalence of Anti-HTLV-III in Haemophiliacs,”
Lancet
II (1984): 1275–76; and J. E. Groopman, S. Z. Salahuddin, M. G. Sarngadharan, et al., “Virologic Studies in a Case of Transfusion-Associated AIDS,”
New England Journal of Medicine
311 (1984): 1418–22.
105
G. M. Shaw, B. H. Hahn, S. K. Arya, et al., “Molecular Characterization of Human T-Cell Leukemia (Lymphotropic) Virus Type III in the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome,”
Science
226 (1984): 1165–71; and M. Alizon, P. Sonigo, F. Barré-Sinoussi, et al., “Molecular Cloning of Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus,”
Nature
312 (1984): 757–60.
106
J. A. Levy, A. D. Hoffmann, S. M. Kramer, et al., “Isolation of Lymphocytopathic Retroviruses from San Francisco Patients with AIDS,”
Science
225 (1984): 840–42.
107
P. A. Luciw, S. J. Potter, K. Steimer, et al., “Molecular Cloning of AIDS-Associated Retrovirus,”
Nature
312 (1984): 760–63.
108
A. G. Dagliesh, P. C. L. Beverley, P. R. Clapham, et al., “The CD4 (T4) Antigen Is an Essential Component of the Receptor for the AIDS Retrovirus,”
Nature
312 (1984): 763–66.
109
S. Wain-Hobson, P. Sonigo, O. Danos, et al., “Nucleotide Sequence of the AIDS Virus, LAV,”
Cell
40 (1985): 9–17; L. Ratner, W. Haseltine, R. Patarca, et al., “Complete Nucleotide Sequence of the AIDS Virus, HTLV-III,”
Nature
313 (1985): 277–84; and I. M. Chiu, A. Yaniv, J. E. Dahlberg, et al., “Nucleotide Sequence Evidence for Relationship of AIDS Retrovirus to Lentivirus,”
Nature
317 (1985): 366–68.
110
S. Broder and R. C. Gallo, “A Pathogenic Retrovirus (HTLV-III) Linked to AIDS,”
New England Journal of Medicine
311 (1984): 1292–1303.
111
In 1993 scientists working with the World Health Organization would conclude that at least one local subtype (dubbed D and found in parts of Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda) differed from all other HIVs on the planet. It possessed the genetic ability to immediately infect macrophages, bypassing intermediary cells, and to cause devastation of the human T-cell system in a matter of months, rather than years. As many as 12 percent of those infected with subtype D progressed from asymptomatic infection to full AIDS in less than twelve months.
112
“AIDS in Europe, Status Quo 1983.”
European Journal of Cancer and Clinical Oncology
20 (1984): 155–73; Brunet, Bouvet, Liebowitch, et al. (1983), op. cit.; I. C. Bygbjerg, “AIDS in a Danish Surgeon (Zaire 1976),”
Lancet
I (1983): 925; Clumeck, Mascart-Lemone, deMaubeuge, et al. (1983), op. cit.; N. Clumeck, J. Sonnet, H. Taelman, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in African Patients,”
New England Journal of Medicine
310 (1984): 492–97; D. Edwards, P. G. Harper, A. K. Pain, et al., “Kaposi's Sarcoma Associated with AIDS in a Woman from Uganda,”
Lancet
I (1984): 631–32; G. Offenstadt, P. Pinta, P. Hericord, et al., “Multiple Opportunistic Infection Due to AIDS in a Previously Healthy Black Woman from Zaire,”
New England Journal of Medicine
308 (1983): 775; and J. Vandepitte, R. Verwilghen, and P. Zachee, “AIDS and Cryptococcosis (Zaire 1977),”
Lancet
I (1983): 925–26.
113
A. Ellrodt, F. Barré-Sinoussi, Ph. LeBras, et al., “Isolation of Human T-Lymphotropic
Retrovirus (LAV) from Zairian Married Couple, One with AIDS, One with Prodromes,”
Lancet
I (1984): 1383–85.
114
Clumeck, Sonnet, Taelman, et al. (1984), op. cit.
115
P. Van de Perre, D. Rouvroy, P. Lepage, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in Rwanda,”
Lancet
II (1984): 62–65.
116
B. Ivanoff, P. Duquesnoy, G. Languillat, et al., “Haemorrhagic Fever in Gabon: I. Incidence of Lassa, Ebola and Marburg Viruses in Haut-Ogooué,”
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
76 (1982): 719–20.
117
N. J. Cox, J. B. McCormick, K. M. Johnson, and M. P. Kiley, “Evidence for Two Subtypes of Ebola Virus Based on Oligonucleotide Mapping of RNA,”
Journal of Infectious Diseases
147 (1983): 272–75.
118
P. Piot, T. C. Quinn, H. Taelman, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in a Heterosexual Population in Zaire,”
Lancet
I (1984): 65–69.
119
R. Shilts, “The Heterosexual Connection: AIDS Researchers Look to Africa,”
San Francisco Chronicle
, November 7, 1984: 5.
120
SIDA is the French acronym for AIDS.
121
F. Brun-Vézinet, C. Rouzioux, L. Montagnier, et al., “Prevalence of Antibodies to Lymphadenopathy-Associated Retrovirus in African Patients with AIDS,”
Science
236 (1984): 453–56.
122
J. M. Mann, H. Francis, T. Quinn, et al., “Surveillance for AIDS in a Central African City,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
255 (1986): 3255–59.
123
The finding was also published. See P. Van de Perre, N. Clumeck, M. Carael, et al., “Female Prostitutes: A Risk Group for Infection with Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type III,”
Lancet
II (1985): 524–26; and N. Clumeck, M. Robert-Guroff, and P. Van de Perre, “Seroepidemiological Studies of HTLV-III Antibody Prevalence Among Selected Groups of Heterosexual Africans,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
254 (1985): 2599–2602c.
124
The proceedings of the First International Conference on AIDS were published in the
Annals of Internal Medicine
, Vol. 103, No. 5 (1985). The Kenyan data also appeared in R. J. Biggar, B. K. Johnson, C. Oster, et al., “Regional Variation in Prevalence of Antibody Against Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Types I and III in Kenya, East Africa,”
International Journal of Cancer
35 (1985): 763–67.
125
R. J. Biggar, M. Melbye, L. Kestens, et al., “Seroepidemiology of HTLV-III Antibodies in a Remote Population of Eastern Zaire,”
British Medical Journal
290 (1985): 808–10.
126
W. C. Saxinger, P. H. Levine, A. G. Dean, et al., “Evidence for Exposure to HTLV-III in Uganda Before 1973,”
Science
227 (1985): 1036–38.
127
These findings were published. See P. J. Kanki, M. F. McLane, and N. W. King, “Serologic Identification and Characterization of a Macaque T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus Closely Related to HTLV-III,”
Science
228 (1985): 1199–1201; M. D. Daniel, N. L. Letvin, N. W. King, et al., “Isolation of T-Cell Tropic HTLV-III-like Retrovirus from Macaques,”
Science
228 (1985): 1201–4; and P. J. Kanki, R. Kurth, W. Becker, et al., “Antibodies to Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus Type III in African Green Monkeys and Recognition of STLV-III Viral Proteins by AIDS and Related Sera,”
Lancet
I (1985): 1330–32.
128
For excellent descriptions of the blame-counterblame atmosphere that surrounded discussions of AIDS in Africa from late 1983 to 1990, see Sabatier (1988), op. cit.; and T. Barnett and P. Blaikie,
AIDS in Africa: Its Present and Future Impact
(New York: Guilford Press, 1992).
During elections in South Africa in the mid-1980s, opposing white politicians made use of inflated African AIDS data. One right-wing presidential candidate even claimed that ANC guerrillas in Zambia were deliberately getting infected with HIV, sneaking back into South Africa, and then having sex with white women in order to spread AIDS among Boers.
Inflated AIDS reports were a common feature of the apartheid regime. See, for example, S. Simmie, “One in Ten Africans Has AIDS,”
Weekly Mail
, Johannesburg, May 20—June 5, 1986: 9.
129
United Nations Development Programme,
Human Development Report 1993
(Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1993). According to the United Nations, military expenditures in non-Arab Africa were as follows:
130
A similar pattern of rain forest encroachment and subsequent desertification was later observed along South America's Amazon Basin. See J. deOnis,
The Green Cathedral: Sustainable Development of Amazonia
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
131
R. J. Biggar, P. L. Gigasse, M. Melbye, et al., “ELISA HTLV Retrovirus Antibody Reactivity Associated with Malaria and Immune Complexes in Healthy Africans,”
Lancet
II (1985): 520–23.
132
D. Serwadda, R. D. Mugerwa, N. K. Sewankambo, et al., “Slim Disease: A New Disease in Uganda and Its Association with HTLV-III Infection,”
Lancet
II (1985): 849–52.
133
See T. C. Quinn, J. M. Mann, J. W. Curran, and P. Piot, “AIDS in Africa: An Epidemiologic Paradigm,”
Science
234 (1986): 955–56.
134
A. E. Greenberg, C. A. Schable, A. J. Sulzer, et al., “Evaluation of Serological Cross-Reactivity Between Antibodies to Plasmodium and HTLV-III/LAV,”
Lancet
II (1986): 247–48; A. Srinivasan and D. York, “Lack of HIV Replication in Arthropod Cells,”
Lancet
I (1987): 094–95; D. Connelley, “Bedbugs and HIV,”
New Scientist
(June 5, 1986): 69; J. C. Chermann, “Isolation of
AIDS Virus from Insects,”
Comptes Rendues d‘Académie des Sciences
, Series A, 303: 303–6; Office of Technology Assessment,
AIDS-Related Issues
, Staff Paper 1, September 1987, report to the U.S. Congress (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office); and M. J. Blaser, “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Possibly Arthropod-Borne,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 877.
135
P. J. Kanki, M. F. McLane, and N. W. King, “Serologic Identification and Characterization of a Macaque T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus Closely Related to HTLV-III,”
Science
228 (1985): 1199–1201.
136
J. M. Mann, H. Francis, F. Davachi, et al., “Risk Factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Seropositivity Among Children 1–24 Months Old in Kinshasa, Zaire,”
Lancet
II (1986): 654–56.

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