The Tragedy of the Templars (49 page)

Ehdan Yarshater, ed.,
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983

Bat Ye'or,
Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilisations Collide
, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison, NJ, 2002

Paul E. Chevedden, ‘The View of the Crusades from Rome and Damascus: The Geo-Strategic and Historical Perspectives of Pope Urban II and Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami', in
Oriens
39 (Brill, Leiden, 2011), pp. 257–329

Barbara Frale, ‘The Chinon Chart: Papal Absolution to the Last Templar, Master Jacques de Molay',
The Journal of Medieval History
, 30 (2004), pp. 109–34

Andrew Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem, the Holy Sepulchre and the Origins of the First Crusade', in
Crusades
, vol. 7 (Ashgate, Farnham, 2008), pp. 35–57

Benjamin Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem Massacre of 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades', in
Crusades
, vol. 3 (Ashgate, Farnham, 2004), pp. 15–76

Tamer el-Leithy, ‘Coptic Culture and Conversion in Medieval Cairo', PhD diss. Princeton University, NJ, 2005

Al Qahira
, Egyptian weekly published by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture, 5 August 2003 and 19 August 2003, two articles by Ahmad Muhammad Arafa, arguing that Al Aqsa in Jerusalem is not the ‘farthest mosque':

www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/964.htm

Steven Runciman, ‘Greece and the Later Crusades', a lecture given in Monemvasia on 31 July 1982, repr. in the
New Griffon
, Gennadius Library, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, ed. Haris A. Kalligas:

www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/runciman_crusades.html

The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was made. To locate a specific passage, please use the search feature on your e-book reader.

1
    Imad al-Din, in Gabrieli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
, p. 163.

2
    Imad al-Din, as quoted by Abu Shama in the
Recueil des Historiens des Croisades, Historiens Orientaux
, vol. IV (Paris, 1898), p. 333, and translated and reproduced in Hillenbrand,
Crusades
, p. 301.

3
    Imad al-Din, in Gabrieli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
, p. 147.

4
    Saladin's extortion ceased in 1192 only when Richard the Lionheart demanded free access for pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre.

5
    Anonymous,
De Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum;
repr., trans. Brundage,
The Crusades: A Documentary History
, p. 163. The author of
De Expugnatione
, though anonymous, is thought to have been an Englishman in the service of Raymond of Tripoli.

6
    Imad al-Din, in Gabrieli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
, p. 156.

7
    Ibn Shaddad, in Hillenbrand,
Crusades
, 189.

8
    Imad al-Din, in Gabrieli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
, p. 160.

9
    Tyerman,
God's War
, p. 353.

10
  Hillenbrand,
Crusades
, p. 180.

11
  Lyons and Jackson,
Saladin
, p. 240.

12
  Ehrenkreutz,
Saladin
, p. 237.

13
  Lyons and Jackson,
Saladin
, p. 280.

14
  Ibid., pp. 275–6.

15
  See for example Tyerman,
God's War
, p. 52: ‘The question of the extent of Arabisation and Islamicisation of conquered lands remains obscure and vexed, but it appears that the process was slow, uneven and, by the eleventh century, still incomplete. It is not certain whether there was even a Muslim majority in Syria or Palestine when the crusaders arrived in 1097.' The evidence for a Christian majority is far greater than Tyerman admits and will be dealt with later in this book.

16
  Ibid., sura 9, verse 4.

17
  The Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 9, verse 14.

18
  See Cyril Glassé,
The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam
, Stacey International, London 1991.

19
  Hillenbrand,
Crusades
, p. 444.

20
  Ibid., p. 333.

21
  Lyons and Jackson,
Saladin
, p. 276.

22
  Ibid., p. 361.

23
  William of Tyre,
A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea
, pp. 406–8.

1
    Eusebius,
Life of Constantine
, 1.28; Lactantius,
On the Deaths of the Persecutors
, 44; also see Robin Lane Fox,
Pagans and Christians
, p. 611–18.

2
    Theodoret of Cyrrhus,
A History of the Monks of Syria
, p.165. Theodoret (393–466) is referring to the vast numbers of pilgrims who arrived from all over the Christian world to witness Simeon Stylites (
c
. 385–459) in northern Syria.

3
    Joseph Patrich, ‘Church, State and the Transformation of Palestine: The Byzantine Period', in Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
, pp. 470–72.

4
    Leontius of Byzantium quoted in Colin Morris,
The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West: From the Beginning to 1600
, p. 53.

5
    The population of Palestine during the Byzantine period was about a million, a much greater population than at any time until the twentieth century. See Joseph Patrich, ‘Church, State and the Transformation of Palestine: The Byzantine Period', in Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
, p. 473; and Gil,
History of Palestine
, p. 169, and footnote 40 on that page, referring to Judaea.

6
    Antiochus Strategos, ‘The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD', trans. Frederick C. Conybeare,
English Historical Review
, 25 (1910), pp. 502–17.

7
    Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1999; also
Sebeos' History
, trans. Robert Bedrosian, online: http://rbedrosian.com/sebtoc.html.

8
    For example, the Mamilla cave discovery in 1992, a mass grave for those whose bodies were recovered from the Mamel cistern after the Persian massacre: see Ronny Reich, ‘ “God Knows their Names”: Mass Christian Grave Revealed in Jerusalem', Biblical Archaeology Review, 22/2 (1996,), pp.26–35; also Yossi Nagar, ‘Human Skeletal Remains from the Mamilla Cave, Jerusalem', Israel Antiquities Authority: http://www.antiquities. org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=17&sub_subj_id=179; and Gideon Avni, ‘The Persian Conquest of Jerusalem (641 CE): An Archaeological Assessment': http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/pers357904.shtml.

9
    Vasiliev,
History of the Byzantine Empire
, vol. 1, p. 197.

10
  Sebeos is quoted by Vasiliev in
History of the Byzantine Empire
, vol. 1, p. 198. See also Sebeos,
The Armenian History
, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1999, and
Sebeos' History
, trans. Robert Bedrosian, online: http://rbedrosian.com/sebtoc.html.

1
    The Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 22, verses 39–40.

2
    Leoni Caetani,
Studi di Storia Orientale
, vol. 1, p. 368.

3
    Dosabhai Framji Karaka,
History of the Parsis Including Their Manners, Customs, Religion and Present Position
, vol. 1, p. 15.

4
    Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It
, p. 120. This account in the manuscript of Thomas the Presbyter is the first non-Muslim reference to Mohammed; the battle took place on 7 February 634. The Samaritans were closely related to the Jews; they claimed theirs was the true version of Judaism as practised before the Babylonian exile. Their numbers were significant in Palestine at this time, but they now number fewer than a thousand worldwide.

5
    Washington Irving,
Mahomet and His Successors
, vol. 2, in
The Works of Washington Irving
, vol. 13, chapters 9–11; also Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
, chapter 51.

6
    Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
, chapter 51.

7
    Sophronius' sermon of 6 December 636 or 637, in Hoyland,
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It
, p. 72.

8
    Some Muslim sources say Jerusalem endured a seven-month siege, but the oldest Muslim sources, and also Byzantine sources, say it lasted nearly two years. For the sufferings and deaths caused by the siege see Cline,
Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel
, pp. 149–50.

9
    The Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 2, verse 137.

10
  Adamnan,
The Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land
, pp. 4–5.

11
  The Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 2, verses 142–5.

12
  Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari,
History of the Prophets and Kings
, cited in Gil,
A History of Palestine
, p. 66.

1
    Fernand Braudel,
A History of Civilizations
, Allen Lane, London, 1994, p. 335.

2
    Whitcomb in Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
, p. 499.

3
    Muqaddasi,
Description of Syria
, p. 23.

4
    Ibid., p. 23, footnote 1.

5
    Karsh,
Islamic Imperialism
, p. 63, citing Hamilton A. R. Gibb,
Studies on the Civilization of Islam
, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1962, pp. 51–7; and Oleg Graber, ‘Islamic Art and Byzantium',
Dumbarton Oaks Papers
, vol. 18 (1964), p. 88.

6
    Vasiliev,
History of the Byzantine Empire
, vol. 1, p. 233.

7
    Koran, trans. Arberry. Some translations of the Koran – for example, that of Dawood – refer to ‘the farthest Temple', but in the original Arabic of the Koran the phrase is
‘al-masjid al-aqsa', masjid
meaning ‘mosque' and
aqsa
meaning ‘farthest'.

8
    For example, ‘Was the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey to Palestine or Medina?' by Ahmad Muhammad Arafa in the Egyptian Ministry of Culture publication
Al-Qahira
(5 August 2003); this can be viewed online: www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/941.htm

9
    Gil,
A History of Palestine
, p. 98, footnote 22.

10
  Whitcomb in Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
, p. 499.

11
  Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 4, verse 171.

12
  Muqaddasi,
Description of Syria
, p. 46.

13
  The first evidence that the mosque was called al-Aqsa comes in Fatimid times, when it was yet again rebuilt and an inscription added about the ‘furthest mosque' from Koran, sura 17, verse 1.

14
  In the early Islamic period seafaring round the Arabian peninsula and to East Africa and India was in the hands of Persians. See George Hourani,
Arab Seafaring
, p. 79. Syrian seafarers were the descendants of the coastal Phoenicians who had competed with the Greeks in trade and colonisation throughout the ancient Mediterranean.

15
  Leo I, Letter XXVIII, Tome 2, AD 449; Henry Bettenson, ed.,
The Later Christian Fathers
, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1970, p. 278.

16
  Alfred J. Butler,
The Arab Conquest of Egypt
, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1902, p. 158.

17
  Gil,
A History of Palestine
, p. 141 (from Tabari,
Ta'rikh
, II, 1372).

18
  Al-Maqrizi, fifteenth-century Egyptian historian, quoted in Otto Meinardus,
Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Deserts
, The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, 1989, p. 55.

19
  Gil,
A History of Palestine
, p. 86, citing Tabari,
Ta'rikh
, II, 1834ff.

20
  Ibid., p. 86, footnote 11.

21
  Theophanes,
Chronicle
, p. 112.

1
    A village called Baghdad has been recorded on that spot since the eighteenth century BC; the name has been assimilated to a later but similar Persian word meaning ‘Gift of God'. See Spuler,
The Muslim World
, p. 51.

2
    Mansur's words as reported by the geographer and chronicler Ahmad al-Yaqubi, cited in Lewis,
The Arabs in History
, p. 82.

3
    Thubron,
Mirror to Damascus
, p. 103.

4
    Hourani,
Syria and Lebanon
, p. 21.

5
    Whitcomb in Levy, ed.,
The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land
, p. 488.

6
    Spuler,
The Muslim World
, p. 27.

7
    The Koran, trans. Dawood, sura 5, verse 66; 2:62. Also sura 5, verse 69, is similar.

8
    Ibid., sura 22, verse 17.

9
    Frye, ed.,
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 4, p. 32.

10
  Boyce,
Zoroastrians
, p. 147; Frye, ed.,
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 4, p. xii.

11
  Spuler,
The Muslim World
, p. 52.

12
  Frye, ed.,
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 4, p. xi.