The Psychology Book (102 page)

to specific work-related roles.

stayed there for 30 years,

power is on behalf of a company

McClelland’s ideas revolutionized

becoming Chairman of the

or an organization. Someone with

business recruitment, and although

Department of Social Relations.

a strong drive for personal power

his intensive methods of assessing

In 1963, McClelland set

up a business management

may make a poor team player.

job applicants have lost some of

consultancy, applying his

High quality work, McClelland

their popularity, the basic principles

theories to assist company

thought, stems from the need for

endure. Motivation is now seen as

executives in the assessment

achievement, which is therefore

critical to performance at work. ■

and training of staff. In 1987,

a far more accurate predictor of

Boston University made him

job success than intelligence.

a Distinguished Research

The drive to achieve, he believed,

Professor of Psychology, a

is what gives people a competitive

position he held up to his

edge, helping them to stretch for

death at the age of 80.

new goals and improve.

Lastly, McClelland claimed that

Key works

the need for affiliation—to have

good relationships with others—

1953
The Achievement Motive

helps people to work well within a

1961
The Achieving Society

1973
Testing for Competence

team. He also noted that people with

Rather Than for Intelligence

a pronounced need for affiliation are

The Thematic Apperception Test

1987
Human Motivation

unlikely to be successful managers.

was promoted by McClelland as a way of

1998
Identifying Competencies

McClelland pointed out that

assessing job candidates. Telling a story

with Behavioral-Event

motivation stems from personality

based on a series of images was thought

Interviews

traits that are deeply embedded in

to uncover people’s true motives.

324

EMOTION IS AN

ESSENTIALLY

UNCONSCIOUS

PROCESS

NICO FRIJDA (1927– )

situation has changed, as scientific

IN CONTEXT

findings regarding the “site” of

emotions have led to renewed

APPROACH

O
ur emotions and feelings

are idiosyncratic; they seem

to be purely subjective, and

the mysticism surrounding them

interest. Evolutionary psychologists

Psychology of emotion

may explain why the psychology of

have also posed questions. What is

BEFORE

emotion has advanced so slowly.

the purpose of emotions? How have

But during the last 30 years, this

1872
Biologist Charles Darwin

they helped us survive and thrive?

publishes the first scientific

study of human emotions

in
The Expression of the

Emotion is an essentially unconscious process.

Emotions in Man and Animals
.

Late 1800s
William James

and Danish physiologist

Carl Lange propose the

Emotions
are motivating

Feelings
are how we interpret

James–Lange theory of

forces, preparing us for action.

the emotions we experience.

emotion: that emotions are

the result of bodily changes,

and not the cause of them.

1929
Physiologists Walter

Cannon and Philip Bard say

They are
spontaneous

We are
consciously aware
of

we experience physiological

biological processes
that

our feelings and can make

arousal and emotion at the

are out of our control.

decisions
based on them.

same time, in the Bard–

Cannon theory.

AFTER

1991
In
Emotion and

Adaptation
, psychologist

They can be
understood by

As we have control of our

others
through spontaneous

Richard Lazarus says a thought

feelings,
others cannot

physical expression,

guess
at our feelings

must precede any emotion or

such as laughter.

through our behavior.

physiological arousal.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DIFFERENCE 325

See also:
William James 38–45 ■ Albert Ellis 142–45 ■ Gordon H. Bower 194–95 ■ Charlotte Bühler 336 ■

René Diatkine 338 ■ Stanley Schachter 338

Nico Frijda’s groundbreaking book,

about it. We are not suddenly

The Laws of Emotion
, explores

hijacked by our feelings as we are

the substance and rules of

by our emotions.

emotions. He sees them as lying

at the crossroads of biological and

Action and thought

cognitive processes: some, such

Frijda points out that emotions and

as fear, are biologically inherent

feelings are also displayed differently.

or innate, and these basic emotions

Emotions prepare us for action; in

are the ones we share with other

situations that induce fear, they are

animals. Others arise in us in

motivating forces that prepare the

response to thoughts, so are clearly

body to flee or stand and fight. Other

cognition-based. They may even—

people are able to understand, or at

as in the case of indignation or

least guess at, our emotions from our

humiliation—be shaped by culture.

behavior. Feelings, however, may or

Emotions, such as fear
, Frijda says,

Frijda makes clear distinctions

may not be consistent with

are always “about something.” They are

between emotions and feelings.

behavior, because we can choose

spontaneous responses to changing

Emotions are beyond our control;

to behave in a way that hides them.

circumstances, and reveal much about

they spontaneously arise and alert

Frijda sees the basic emotions

our relationship with our environment.

us to their presence by physical

as an opportunity for greater self-

sensations, such as a tightening

awareness. They accompany a

In defining and describing a very

in the gut when we feel fear. For

biological arousal that makes us

specific set of laws by which

this reason he says that “emotion

notice them and become more

emotions operate, Frijda shows that

is an essentially unconscious

aware of our feelings. This allows us

they emerge, wax, and wane in a

process.” Feelings, on the other

to factor them into choices we make,

predictable way. Reason interprets

hand, are our interpretations of

and with honest reflection, to deepen

them like a barometer, to ensure our

whatever emotions we are

self-awareness. But Frijda confines

mental well-being. “Our emotional

experiencing, and have a more

basic emotions to anger, joy, shame,

selves and reasonable selves are not

conscious element to them. When

sadness, and fear. Others, such as

compartmentalized,“ Frijda says,

we feel something, we are able to

jealousy and guilt, do not have the

“on the contrary, they are connected

have thoughts and make decisions

same biological imperative.

much more than they seem”. ■

Nico Frijda

Nico Henri Frijda was born in

teaching. For the next 10 years

Amsterdam to an academic Jewish

he was assistant professor at

family, and lived in hiding as a

the University of Amsterdam,

child to avoid the persecution of

then professor in experimental

the Jews during World War II. He

and theoretical psychology.

studied psychology at Gemeente

Frijda has held visiting posts

Universiteit, Amsterdam, where he

in universities across Europe,

was awarded a PhD in 1956 for

including Paris, Italy, Germany,

his thesis
Understanding Facial

and Spain. He lives with his

Expressions
. He attributes his

second wife in Amsterdam.

initial interest in emotions to

being in love, as a student, with

Key works

“a very expressive girl.”

From 1952 to 1955 Frijda

1986
The Emotions

worked as a clinical psychologist at

2006
The Laws of Emotion

the Dutch Army Neurosis Centre,

2011
Emotion Regulation and

before returning to research and

Free Will

326

BEHAVIOR WITHOUT

ENVIRONMENTAL

CUES WOULD BE

ABSURDLY CHAOTIC

WALTER MISCHEL (1930– )

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

U
ntil the late 1960s,

Raymond Cattell identified 16

personality was most

different personality traits; Hans J.

often described as a series

Eysenck suggested there were only

of individual behavioral traits

three or four. In 1961, Ernest Tupes

Personality theory

that were genetically inherited.

and Raymond Christal proposed

BEFORE

Psychologists worked to define

that there are five major personality

and measure these traits, because

traits (the “Big Five”): openness,

c.400 BCE
Ancient Greek

this was thought to be essential

conscientiousness, extraversion,

physician Hippocrates

to understanding and reliably

agreeableness, and neuroticism or

suggests personality depends

predicting a person’s behavior.

emotional stability. Then, in 1968,

on the levels of the four

humors in the body.

1946
Raymond Cattell begins

developing his 16-factor model

of personality.

How can
behavior

be
predicted?

1961
American psychologists

Ernest Tupes and Raymond

Christal propose the first “Big

Five” personality-factor model.