The Psychology Book (106 page)

then went to medical school and

development throughout life. Rather

child developmental psychologist,

specialized in neurology. Balancing

than Jung’s three stages of life, she

specialized in the measurement of

the physical and the mental, he made

proposed four: birth–15; 16–25;

motor and intellectual development.

breakthroughs in brain damage,

26–45; and 46–65. Bühler found

For her doctorate, she measured

memory loss, perception, and

links between adult emotions and

fear in children by analyzing the

aphasia (language disorders). The

early childhood. Her World Test is a

sympathetic nervous system via

stories he told in books such as

therapeutic device that uses a set

moisture levels in sweat glands.

The Man with a Shattered World:

of numbered miniatures to reveal a

Her
Bayley Scales of Mental and

The History of a Brain Wound
(1972)

child’s inner emotional world. After

Motor Development
(1969) remains

helped to popularize neurology.

publishing
From Birth to Maturity

the worldwide standard measure of

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99

(1935) and
From Childhood to Old

mental and physical development

■ B.F. Skinner 78–85 ■ Noam

Age
(1938), she moved to the US. In

in infants from one to 42 months.

Chomsky 294–97

the 1960s, Bühler helped to develop

See also:
Edwin Guthrie 74 ■

humanistic psychology.

Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

See also:
Carl Rogers 130–37 ■

DANIEL LAGACHE

Abraham Maslow 138–39 ■ Viktor

1903–1972

Frankl 140 ■ Gordon Allport 306–13

MILTON ERICKSON

1901–1980

Frenchman Daniel Lagache was

DAVID WECHSLER

inspired to study experimental

Nevada-born Erickson’s trial-and-

psychology, psychopathology, and

1896–1981

error observations of hypnosis over

phenomenology by the lectures of

many years led him to become a

Georges Dumas. A forensics and

During World War I, Wechsler, a

world authority on hypnosis and

criminology expert, Lagache’s key

Romanian-born American, worked

trance. He is well known for his

books included
Jealousy
(1947) and

as an army psychologist alongside

Ericksonian Handshake that

Pathological Mourning
(1956). After

DIRECTORY 337

being expelled from the International

their own personalities through their

Cerebral Cortex and the Internal

Psychoanalytical Association in 1953

cognitive appraisal of events. From

Organs
(1954), Miller set out to

for his criticism of Sacha Nacht’s

this theory came the “role construct

prove that internal organs and

medical authoritarianism, he set up

repertory test,” which is used to

their functions could also be

the breakaway French Society of

research and diagnose the nature

manipulated at will. His findings

Psychoanalysis with Jacques Lacan.

of personality. Valued in cognitive

led to the treatment technique of

A Freudian theorist, Lagache also

psychology and counseling, it is also

Biofeedback, which aims to

played an important role in

used in organizational behavior and

improve patients’ conditions by

promoting psychoanalysis among

educational studies.

training them to respond to signals

the general public, particularly by

See also:
Johann Friedrich

from their own bodies.

linking it with clinical experience.

Herbart 24–25 ■ Carl Rogers 130–37

See also:
Anna Freud 111 ■

See also:
Jacques Lacan 122–23

■ Ulric Neisser 339

Albert Bandura 286–91

ERNEST R. HILGARD

MUZAFER SHERIF

ERIC BERNE

1904–2001

1906–1988

1910–1970

In the 1950s, Ernest Ropiequet

Raised in Turkey, Sherif gained his

Berne, a Canadian psychiatrist and

“Jack” Hilgard collaborated on his

PhD in the US at Columbia, with a

psychoanalyst, developed the theory

pioneering hypnosis studies at

dissertation on how social factors

of transactional analysis, which put

Stanford University with his wife

can influence perception. Published

verbal communication at the center

Josephine and, in 1957, they

as
The Psychology of Social Norms

of psychotherapy. The words of the

founded the Laboratory of Hypnosis

(1936), it became known as “the

first speaker, the Agent, were called

Research. There, with André Muller

autokinetic effect” experiments. One

a Transaction Stimulus; the reply of

Weitzenhoffer, he developed the

of Sherif’s legacies was combining

the Respondant was a Transaction

Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility

successfully experimental methods

Response. Every personality was

Scales
(1959). His controversial

in the laboratory and the field. He

split into alter-egos: child, adult, and

neodissociation theory and the

worked with his wife, Carolyn Wood

parent; each stimulus and response

“hidden-observer effect” (1977)—

Sherif, notably on the Robbers Cave

was seen as playing one of these

which asserts that under hypnosis

Experiment (1954). In this, a number

“parts.” Exchanges were studied as

several subsystem states of

of boy campers were divided into

an “I do something to you, and you

consciousness are regulated by an

two groups. Posing as a janitor,

do something back” transactional

executive control system—have

Sherif observed the origins of

analysis. His
Games People Play

stood the test of time. His textbooks

prejudice, conflict, and stereotype in

(1964) suggested that “games,” or

Conditioning and Learning
(with

social groups. His resulting Realistic

behavior patterns, between

D.G. Marquis, 1940) and
Introduction

Conflict theory still underpins our

individuals can indicate hidden

to Psychology
(1953) are still studied.

understanding of group behavior.

feelings or emotions.

See also:
Ivan Pavlov 60–61 ■

With Carl Havland, he also developed

See also:
Erik Erikson 272–73 ■

Leon Festinger 166–67 ■ Eleanor E.

the Social Judgement theory (1961).

David C. McClelland 322–23

Maccoby 284–85

See also:
Soloman Asch 224–27 ■

Philip Zimbardo 254–55

ROGER W. SPERRY

GEORGE KELLY

1905–1967

NEAL MILLER

1913–1994

1909–2002

American neurobiologist Sperry’s

Kelly made an important contribution

successful separation of the corpus

to the psychology of personality

American psychologist Miller was

callosum—the bundles of nerve

through
The Psychology of Personal

a research fellow in Vienna under

fibers that transfer signals between

Constructs
(1955). His humanistic

Anna Freud and Heinz Hartman.

left and right brain hemispheres—

idea suggests that individuals make

After reading K.M. Bykov’s
The

led to a dramatic breakthrough in

338 DIRECTORY

the treatment of a certain kind of

in opinions to prove that television

epilepsy. In 1981, with David Hubel

could alter people’s values.

HAROLD H. KELLEY

and Torsten Wiesel, he was awarded

See also:
Leon Festinger 166–67 ■

1921–2003

the Nobel Prize for Physiology and

Solomon Asch 224–27 ■ Albert

Medicine for his work on his split-

Bandura 286–91

American social psychologist Kelley

brain theory, which showed that

gained his PhD under Kurt Lewin

the left and right hemispheres had

at Massachusetts Institute of

separate specializations.

RENE DIATKINE

Technology. His first major work,

See also:
William James 38–45 ■

1918–1997

Communication and Persuasion

Simon Baron-Cohen 298–99

(with Hovland & Janis, 1953), split

Diatkine, a French psychoanalyst

a communication into three parts:

SERGE LEBOVICI

and psychiatrist, was central to the

“who;” “says what;” and “to whom.”

development of dynamic psychiatry.

The idea was widely adopted, and

1915–2000

He emphasised emotions and their

it changed the way people such as

underlying thought processes, rather

politicians presented themselves. In

Lebovici was a French Freudian

than observable behavior. Diatkine

1953, he began working with John

who specialized in adolescent, child,

was also very active in developing

Thibaut. Together they wrote
The

and infant development, especially

institutional mental health, helping

Social Psychology of Groups
(1959),

the bonding process between baby

to set up
The Association De Santé

followed by
Interpersonal Relations:

and mother. He is credited with

Mentale
in 1958. His book on primal

A Theory of Interdependence
(1978).

introducing child psychoanalysis

fantasies,
Precocious Psychoanalysis

See also:
Leon Festinger 166–67 ■

to France. His many books include

(with Janine Simon, 1972), is one of

Kurt Lewin 218–23 ■ Noam

Psychoanalysis in France
(1980)

his most enduring works.

Chomsky 294–97

and
International Annals of

See also:
Anna Freud 111 ■

Adolescent Psychiatry
(1988).

Jacques Lacan 122–23

See also:
Sigmund Freud 92–99 ■

STANLEY SCHACHTER

Anna Freud 111

PAUL MEEHL

1922–1997

MILTON ROKEACH

1920–2003

New York-born Schachter is best

known for the two-factor theory of

1918–1988

The work of American Paul Meehl

emotion (the Schachter-Singer

has had a lasting impact on mental

Theory), developed with Jerome

Rokeach, a Polish-American social

health and research methodology. In

Singer. The pair showed that

psychologist, studied how religious

Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction:

physical sensations are linked to

belief affects values and attitudes.

A Theoretical Analysis and a Review

emotions—for example, the way in

He saw values as core motivations

of the Evidence
(1954), he argued

which people experience increased

and mental transformations of basic

that behavioral statistics were

heartbeat and muscle tension

psychological needs. His theory of

better examined using formulaic

before feeling afraid—and that