The New Penguin History of the World (236 page)

Nicaragua,
805
,
1083

Nicholas I, pope (858–67),
414

Nicholas I (1796–1855), tsar of Russia (1825–55),
762
–3,
764
,
765

Nigeria

early kingship in,
481

civil war in
1075

Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910), British hospital reformer,
754

Nile River

basis of Egyptian civilization,
66
–7,
70

cultural influence,
74
,
76
,
80
,
86

marshes reclaimed,
83

Nimrud, Babylonian city,
61

Nineveh, Babylonian city,
61
,
115
,
116
,
117

Nixon, Richard M. (1913–1994), US

president,
1103
–1105,
1177

Normans

Normandy, in Mediterranean,
359
,
525

duchy granted,
366
,
402

loss of Scandinavian character,
410

conquest of England,
506
–7

duchy acquired by France,
507

Norsemen

Slav tribes and,
365
–6

colonizing,
406
–8,
482

shipping,
406
,
531
–2

raids on Christendom,
407
–9

absorbed into native cultures,
409
,
410

see also
Varangians

North America

human immigration,
22
–3,
26
,
482

primitive agriculture,
33
,
36
,
482

Norse settlement,
407
,
482

European settlement,
648
–56,
662

War of American Independence,
720
–4,
734

see also
American Revolution; Canada; United States of America

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
1150
,
1155

established,
1043

Germany and,
1045

strains in,
1109

and Kosovan crisis,
1115
,
1171
–2

North Korea,
1160

Norway

early colonizing,
406

women’s vote,
869

World War II and,
959

see also
Norsemen

Novgorod,
369
,
528

Nubia,
82
,
108
,
151

see also
Kush; Sudan

OAU
see
Organization for African Unity

Odoacer (d. 493), German chieftain,
293
,
306

Oghuz Turks, migrate to Iran,
373
–4

oil

in S. America,
804

energy source,
864

political factor,
938
,
940
–1,
944
,
1071
–2

demand for,
1070

in Middle East,
1070
,
1071

‘energy crisis’ and,
1070

Okinawa,
1118

Old Testament,
93
,
108
,
261

evidence of,
108
,
109
,
111
–12,
115

translated into Greek,
264

Newton’s endorsement,
686

books: Genesis,
111
; Joshua,
111
; Daniel,
118
; Isaiah,
118
,
263
; Pentateuch,
261

Olduvai Gorge

earliest home base,
9
–10

fossil relics found,
9
–10,
15
,
20

Oleg (10th cent.), prince of Russia,
366

Olga (d.
c.
969), Christian ruler of Kiev, Russia (945–62),
367

Olmec culture in Meso-america,
152
–3,
483

Olympic Games,
171

Oman,
1124

Organization for African Unity (OAU),
1076
,
1079

Origen (
c.
185–
c.
254), Christian churchman,
274
,
284

origins of Man,
3
–17,
877
–8

Orkhan, first Ottoman sultan (1326–59),
387

Orthodox Church

characteristics,
347

divergence from R.C. Church,
349
–50,
356

dispute over icons,
355
–7

conversion of Slavs,
364
,
368
,
370

centred in Russia,
528

Osiris, Egyptian god,
70
,
76

Osman I (1259–1326), Ottoman sultan (1299–1326),
387

Osmanlis
see
Ottoman empire

Osrhoene, Syrian kingdom,
260

Otto I (912–73), Holy Roman emperor (936–73)

German territories organized,
403

Italian crown assumed,
403

Otto II (955–83), Holy Roman emperor (973–83),
403

Otto III, Holy Roman emperor (983–1002), and ‘renewal of Roman Empire’
403
–4

Ottoman Empire (of Osmanli Turks),
342
,
403

identity,
386
–7

military organization,
387

capture of Constantinople,
387
–8

further conquests,
388
–9

multi-racial policy,
390

perpetuated E.–W. distinction,
390

rivalry with Safavid Persians,
390
–1

European campaigns,
603
,
609
–11

Russian threat to,
615
,
625
,
627
–8,
753
,
765

subjects’ nationalism,
750
,
822
,
871
,
932
,
936
–9

Indian sympathy,
856

World War I and,
888
,
892
,
893

disintegration,
932
–8,
942
–3

Ottonian empire

territorial acquisitions,
404
–5

Papacy and,
406
,
412
,
414

Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso (43
BC
–
AD
17), Roman poet,
246

Oxford, university of,
536
,
549
,
675
,
851

Pacific basin and islands

Tahiti,
672
,
673

US interests,
828

see also
Hawaii; Philippines

painting

Palaeolithic,
23
–6,
36
–7

Indian,
436
,
440

Chinese,
447
,
457

Japanese,
471

abstract,
946

Pakistan

Moslem state created,
982
,
1121

East Bengal secession,
1049

India and,
1049
–50

foreign policy,
1049
–50,
1051

government,
1049
–50

nuclear weapons,
1163

Palaeolithic era

Lower,
21
–2

Upper,
21
–8,
30
,
36
,
37

art,
23
–6,
36
–7

hunting,
23
,
27

physiological development of man,
23
–7,
30

tools,
23

burials,
25

cultural distinctions arise,
34

Palestine,
82

focus of dispute,
89
,
112
–13

Philistines in,
107
–8

crusaders in,
525
–7

Jewish immigration,
937
,
940
,
988

Ottoman rule,
937

British policy,
939
,
940
,
987
–8,
989

Arab nationalists,
1071
,
1132

refugee problem,
1071

and Israel,
1169
–70,
1170

see also
Israel Palestine Liberation Organization

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO),
1070
,
1071
,
1121
–2,
1130
,
1132
,
1133

Panama

Congress (1826),
802

canal,
805
,
829

Pan-American congresses (1889),
804

Papacy

rise of,
312
–13

Frankish involvement,
397
–8,
403
–5,
405
,
412
–14

religious and political focus,
401

diplomatic contacts with China,
447

defence against lay power,
491
–5,
496
–7

support friars,
496

Avignon exile,
499

Protestant critics,
574
–8

Counter-Reformation,
582
–3

Enlightened critics,
693

loss of Temporal Power,
875

Lateran treaties,
910

modern trends,
1030
–2

paper

Chinese invention,
456

used in W.
504
,
516
,
539
,
541

papyrus,
67
,
78
–9,
93
,
220

use declined,
417

Paracelsus (1493–1541), Swiss physician,
680

Paraguay,
1083
,
1089

parchment,
220

enabled minuscule writing,
417

gave way to paper,
504

Paris

capital of Clovis,
303

core of France,
402

growth,
514
–15,
552
,
713

university,
536

revolutions,
752
,
753
,
757
,
758

Commune,
758
,
761

Parliament

English, early growth,
512

composition,
563
,
782

use by Tudors,
580
–1

quarrel with Crown (1640–60),
587
–9

sovereignty questioned in colonies,
722
,
723

flexibility of,
785

buildings,
786

House of Lords limited,
868

parliaments
see
political institutions

Parthia

Parthians, threaten Hellenistic world,
223
–4

resist Romans,
279

overrun by Scythians,
322

in India,
428

Pasiphaë, legendary wife of Minos,
95
,
99

Pasteur, Louis (1822–95), French chemist,
880

Patna, Maurya palace at,
423

Paul, St (
c.
3–
c.
64 or 68), Christian apostle,
268
,
270
,
284

Paul III, pope (1534–49), missionary activity of,
670

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849–1936), Russian biologist,
1029

Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, US base at,
828
,
961

Peasants’ Revolt, England,
518

Pechenges, S. Russian nomads,
359
,
366
,
369