The Indian Ocean (69 page)

116 Vincent Le Blanc,
The World Surveyed
, London, printed for J. Starkey, 1660, p. 47. See also a long and very valuable account by Cesare Federici in Richard Hakluyt,
The Principal Navigations
, Glasgow, J. MacLehose, 1903, 12 vols, V, pp. 375–6.

117 Pires,
The Suma Oriental
, II, 273–4.

118 Barbosa,
Livro
, II, p. 77.

119 Ma Huan,
The Overall Survey
, pp. 140–3; the quotation is on p. 143.

120 Tampoe,
Maritime Trade
, p. 129; Buzurg ibn Shahriyar,
The Book of Wonders
, pp. 62–4.

121 Philip Curtin,
Cross-Cultural Trade in World History
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1984.

122 See the following excellent study, which puts forward 'circulation' as being characteristic of Indian merchants, as compared with their being a version of a diaspora: Claude Markovits,
The Global World of Indian Merchants
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

123 Barendse, 'Trade and State', pp. 186–8.

124 For European parallels see Michel Mollat du Jourdin,
Europe and the Sea
, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, pp. 99–100.

125 See the exemplary study: Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malaka et ses communautés marchandes au tournant du 16
e
siècle', in Lombard and Aubin, eds,
Merchands et hommes d'affairs
, pp. 31–48.

126 Barbosa,
Livro
, II, p. 76.

127 Andaya, 'Saudagar Raja', passim.

128 For general discussion see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, '"Persianization" and "Mercantialism": Two themes in Bay of Bengal History, 1400–1700', in Prakash and Lombard, eds,
Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal
, pp. 47–85.

129 Numerous studies by Anthony Reid, such as 'An "Age of Commerce" in SE Asian History',
Modern Asian Studies
, 24, 1990, 1–30; J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', in J. Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers, eds,
The Southeast Asian Port and Polity
, Singapore, Singapore University Press, 1990, pp. 2–3.

130 Arun Das Gupta, 'The Maritime Trade of Indonesia, 1500–1800', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds,
India and the Indian Ocean
, Calcutta, Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 240–75; for a contrary view, Christopher Wake, 'Banten around the Turn of the Sixteenth Century: Trade and Society in an Indonesian Port City', in Frank Broeze, ed.,
Gateways of Asia: Port Cities of Asia from the 13th to the 20th Centuries
, London, Kegan Paul International, 1997, pp. 66–108.

131 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', passim.

132 Powys Mathers, and J.C. Mardrus, trans.,
The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night
, London, Routledge, 7th impression, 1949, vol. II, pp. 287–9.

133 Ibid., pp. 250, 261, 303–4. Sindbad made seven voyages, and these make up part of the very large compilation called
The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night
.

134 Ghosh,
Antique Land
, pp. 157–8.

135 Tampoe,
Maritime Trade
, p. 126.

136 R.B. Serjeant, 'Yemeni Merchants and Trade in Yemen, 13th-16th Centuries', in Lombard and Aubin, eds,
Marchands et hommes d'affairs
, p. 69.

137 S.D. Goitein, 'From the Mediterranean to India: Documents on the trade to India, South Arabia and East Africa, from the Eleventh and Twelfth centuries',
Speculum
, 29, 1954, pp. 191–5.

138 S.D. Goitein, 'Portrait of a Medieval India Trader: Three Letters from the Cairo Geniza',
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
, L, 1987, pp. 449–64.

139 One influential book was Theda Skocpol, ed.,
Bringing the State back In
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985.

140 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, IV, p. 865.

141 Marco Polo,
The Book of Ser Marco Polo
, II, pp. 389, 392.

142 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, IV, p. 800.

143 Roderich Ptak, ed., J.V.G. Mills, trans.,
The Overall Survey of the Star Raft by Fei Hsin
, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1996, p. 86.

144 Tibbetts,
Arab Navigation
, p. 202.

145 Ghosh,
Antique Land
, pp. 257–8.

146 Craig T. Palmer, 'The Ritual Taboos of Fishermen: An Alternative Explanation',
MAST
, II, 1989, pp. 59–68.

147 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, IV, pp. 911–12.

148 F. Hirth and W.W. Rockhill, trans. and ed.,
Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chi
, St Petersburg, 1911 [New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp], p. 111 and f.n. 2.

149 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, I, pp. 25–7; for other prayers see Tibbetts,
Arab Navigation
, pp. 193–4.

150 Subrahmanyam in Prakash and Lombard, eds,
Commerce and Culture
, p. 60; John O'Kane, trans. and ed.,
The Ship of Sulaiman
, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, p. 26.

151 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, III, p. 393.

152 Abd-er-Razzak in R.H. Major, ed.,
India in the Fifteenth Century
, London, Hakluyt, 1857, pp. 45–9.

153 Mathers and Mardrus, trans.,
Thousand Nights
, pp. 260–1, 305.

154 Ibn Jubayr, India in the Fifteenth Century, pp. 66–70.

155 Abd-er-Razzak in Major, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, pp. 4, 7–8, 12–13.

156 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, III, pp. 361, 393.

157 Ibid., pp. III, pp. 600–2.

158 Ibid., IV, p. 857.

159 Ibid., IV, p. 814.

160 Dunn,
Adventures of Ibn Battuta
, p. 247.

161 Ibn Battuta,
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
, IV, p. 826.

162 Abdul Sheriff, '"Brotherhood of the Sea"', in Rosa Maria Perez, ed.,
Cultures of the Indian Ocean
, Lisbon, CNCDP, 1998.

5
Europeans in an Indian Ocean world

1 K.M. Panikkar,
India and the Indian Ocean: An Essay on the Influence of Sea Power on Indian History
, London, Allen & Unwin, 1945, p. 38.

2 Andrew C. Hess, 'The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525',
American Historical Review
, LXXV, 1970, pp. 1892–919.

3 Dr John Fryer,
A New Account of East India and Persia
, London, Hakluyt, 1909–15, 3 vols, I, p. 302.

4 Jahangir,
Tuzuk-i Jahangiri
, London, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909–14, 2 vols, I, pp. 4 16–19.

5 R.J. Barendse, 'Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century',
Journal of World History
, XI, 2000, pp. 212–14.

6 See for an overview and more sources Om Prakash,
Asia and the Pre-Modern World Economy
, Leiden, University of Leiden, 1995; Om Prakash,
The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630–1720
, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 5; H.W. Van Santen,
De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in Gujarat en Hindustan, 1620–1660
, University of Leiden, Ph.D. thesis, 1982, pp. 206–12.

7 S.N.Banhatti, ed.,
Ajnapatra
, Nagpur and Pune, Suvichar Prakashan Mandal, 4th edn. 1961, repr. 1986, pp. 89, 90–1.

8 See especially Ashin Das Gupta, 'Trade and Politics in 18th-century India', in D.S. Richards, ed.,
Islam and the Trade of Asia
, Oxford, Cassirer, pp. 181–214.

9 Quoted in Basil Davidson,
The Search for Africa: A History in the Making
, London, James Currey, 1994, p. 12; Chandra Richard de Silva, 'Islands and Beaches: Indigenous Relations with the Portuguese in Sri Lanka after Vasco da Gama', in Anthony Disney and Emily Booth, eds,
Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia
, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 283.

10 K.C. Fok, 'Early Ming Images of the Portuguese', in Roderich Ptak, ed.,
Portuguese Asia
, Stuttgart, Steiner, 1987, p. 145.

11 Jacques Le Goff, 'The Medieval West and the Indian Ocean: An Oneiric Horizon', in his
Time, Work and Culture in the Middle Ages
, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1982, pp. 189–200, e.g. 195.

12 Sir John Mandeville,
Mandeville's Travels
, ed. M. Letts, London, Hakluyt, 1953, pp. 116–26; the quotation is on p. 117.

13 Sanjay Subrahmanyam and L.F. Thomaz, 'Evolution of Empire: The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century', in James Tracy, ed.,
The Political Economy of Merchant Empires
, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 304.

14 For these estimates see my
Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat
, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976, and
Coastal Western India
, New Delhi, Concept, 1981. Much of my discussion of the Portuguese in this chapter draws on parts of these books, and on my
The Portuguese in India
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987. I have also of course taken account of a host of new publications which have appeared since these early efforts of mine.

15 João de Barros,
Da Asia
, Lisboa, Na Regia officina typografica, 1777–88, I, vi, l.

16 Michel Mollat du Jourdin,
Europe and the Sea
, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, pp. 28–31.

17 M. Tull, 'Maritime History in Australia', in Frank Broeze, ed.,
Maritime History at the Crossroads: A Critical Review of Recent Historiography
, St John's, Canada, International Maritime Economic History Association, 1996, pp. 7–8; Mark Vink, 'Mare Liberum and Dominium Maris: Legal Arguments and Implications of the Luso–Dutch Struggle for control over Asian Waters, c. 1600–1663', in K.S. Mathew, ed.,
Studies in Maritime History
, Pondicherry, Pondicherry University, 1990, p. 48.

18 L.F. Thomaz, 'Portuguese Control over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal: A Comparative Study', in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds,
Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1800
, Delhi, Manohar, 1999, pp. 117, 141, 158. See also Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Precedents and Parallels of the Portuguese Cartaz System', in Pius Malekandethil and T. Jamal Mohammed, eds,
The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew
, Tellicherry, Kerala, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2001, pp. 67–85 for a rather unconvincing attempt to find precedents for the Portuguese system.

19 See respectively my
Coastal Western India
, New Delhi, 1981, p. 27; and B. Schrieke, 'The Shifts in Political and Economic Power in the Indonesian Archipelago in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century', in
Indonesian Sociological Studies
, The Hague, W. van Hoeve, 1955, vol. I, pp. 26, 70.

20 Dr M.A. Muid Khan, 'Indo-Portuguese Struggle for Maritime Supremacy (As gleaned from an Unpublished Arabic
Urjuza: Fathul Mubiyn
)', in P.M. Joshi and M.A. Nayeem, eds,
Studies in the Foreign Relations of India (From Earliest Times to 1947) Prof. H.K. Sherwani Felicitation Volume
, Hyderabad, State Archives, Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1975, pp. 165–83.

21 Zain-ud-din,
Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen
, trans. M.J. Rowlandson, London, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1833, p. 107.

22 Richard Hall,
Empires of the Monsoon: A History of the Indian Ocean and its Invaders
, London, HarperCollins, 1996, p. 120.

23 Bailey Diffie and George Winius,
Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580
, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1977, pp. 224–5.

24 Thomaz, 'Portuguese control over the Arabian Sea', pp. 122–4, 158.

25 See Sanjay Subrahmanyam,
The Portuguese Empire in Asia 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History
, London, Longman, 1993, pp. 249–61 and other works cited there for a full discussion.