The Indian Ocean (66 page)

24 Rhoads Murphey, 'The City in the Swamp: Aspects of the Site and Early Growth of Calcutta',
Geographical Journal
, 130, 1964, pp. 241–56.

25 Shireen Moosvi, 'The Gujarat Ports and their Hinterland', in Indu Banga, ed.,
Ports and their Hinterlands
, pp. 121–9.

26 Gillian Tindall,
City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay
, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1992, pp. 24–8.

27 Maria Graham,
Journal of a Residence in India
, Edinburgh, A. Constable, 1812, pp. 123–4.

28 Lady Isabel Burton,
A.E.I. Arabia, Egypt, India: A Narrative of Travel
, London, W. Mullan and Son, 1879, pp. 298, 379–81.

29 Burton,
A.E.I
., pp. 69, 73.

30 Tim Winton,
Land's Edge
, Sydney, Macmillan, 1993, p. 23.

31 Lena Lencek and Gideon Bosker,
The Beach: The History of Paradise on Earth
, New York, Viking, 1998, pp. xx, xvii-iii.

32 W.J. Dakin,
Australia's Seashores
, new ed. by Isobel Bennett, Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1987, preface, n.p., and p. 4.

33 Emily Eden,
Up the Country
, London, Curzon Press, 1978, p. 3.

34 Greg Dening,
Islands and Beaches
, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1988, p. 34.

35 J.C. Heesterman, 'Littoral et Intérieur de l'Inde,'
Itinerario
1, 1980, p. 89.

36 Braudel,
The Mediterranean
, p. 17. See also David Sopher,
The Sea Nomads
, Singapore, Printed by Lim Bian Han, Government printer, 1965, p. 1 for a classic discussion of the strand.

37 John Middleton,
The World of the Swahili, An African Mercantile Civilisation
, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1992, p. 9.

38 Randall L. Pouwels,
Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 31. See also Mark Horton and John Middleton,
The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society
, Oxford, Blackwells, 2000, pp. 5–8 (pp. 6–7 is a map).

39 Cousteau,
Life and Death
, pp. 56–7.

40 Jan Knappert, 'East Africa and the Indian Ocean', in J.C. Stone, ed.,
Africa and the Sea: Proceedings of a Colloquium at the University of Aberdeen, March, 1984
, Aberdeen, University of Aberdeen, 1985, p. 125.

41 G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, 'The Sidi and Swahili', in his
The Swahili Coast, 2nd to 19th centuries: Islam, Christianity, and Commerce in Eastern Africa
, London, Variorum, 1988, no. XVII.

42 Dr John Fryer,
A New Account of East India and Persia
, London, Hakluyt, 1909–15, 3 vols, I, p. 197.

43 Quoted by the editor, William Crooke, in Fryer, ibid.; Maria Graham,
Journal
, p. 35.

44 Lotika Varadarajan, 'Traditions of Indigenous Navigation in Gujarat',
South Asia
, n.s. III, 1, 1980, pp. 28–35.

45 A. Jan Qaisar, 'From Port to Port: Life on Indian Ships in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds,
India and the Indian Ocean
, 1500–1800, Calcutta, Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 334–5.

46 J.H. van Linschoten,
The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies
, Hakluyt, London, 1885, 2 vols, I, pp. 227–8.

47 Claudio Magris,
Microcosms
, London, Harvill Press, 1999, p. 57.

48 Dakin,
Australia's Seashores
, p. 6. See especially the excellent discussion in Donald K. Emmerson, 'The Case for a Maritime Perspective on Southeast Asia',
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
, XI, l, March 1980, pp. 143–4.

49 Moira Tampoe,
Maritime Trade between China and the West: An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th Centuries AD
, Oxford, B.A.R., 1989, p. 124.

50 Wilfred Thesiger,
The Marsh Arabs
, London, Longmans, 1964, p. 51.

51 Ibid., p. 28.

52 Thor Heyerdahl,
The Tigris Expedition: In Search of our Beginnings
, Garden City, Doubleday, 1981, p. 15.

53 Thesiger,
Marsh Arabs
, p. 107.

54 Ibid., p. 1.

55 Gavin Young,
Return to the Marshes
:
Life with the Marsh Arabs of Iraq
, London, Collins, 1977, pp. 189–221.

56 Alexander Frater,
Chasing the Monsoon
, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1991, p. 75, and personal observation in December 1999.

57 Quoted in R.J. Barendse,
The Arabian Seas, 1640–1700
, Leiden, Research School, CNWS, Leiden University, 199, p. 56.

58 George Windsor Earl,
The Eastern Seas, or Voyages and Adventures in the Indian Archipelago in 1832–34
, London, W. H. Allen & Co, 1837, pp.160, 176–7.

59 Braudel,
The Mediterranean
, p. 1104.

60 George F. Hourani, revised and expanded by John Carswell,
Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Medieval Times
, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1951, 1995, pp. 54–5.

61 Quoted in William F. Buckley Jr's review of Peter Neill, ed.,
American Sea Writing
, in
New York Times Book Review
, 12 March 2000, p. 27.

62 A much-quoted statement. It can be found,
inter alia
, in Philip Edwards,
The Story of the Voyage: Sea Narratives in Eighteenth-Century England
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 13.

63 Joseph Conrad,
Typhoon, and other Tales
, New York, New American Library, 1963, p. 219.

64 Braudel,
The Mediterranean
, p. 1241.

3
The beginning of the ocean

1 Quoted in Thor Heyerdahl,
The Tigris Expedition: In Search of our Beginnings
, Garden City, Doubleday, 1981, p. 122.

2 A.L. Basham,
The Wonder that was India
, New York, Grove Press, 1954, pp. 241, 302, 319.

3 Savitri Chandra, 'Sea and Seafaring as Reflected in Hindi Literary Works during the 15th to 18th Centuries', in K.S. Mathew, ed.,
Studies in Maritime History
, Pondicherry, Pondicherry University, 1990, pp. 84–91.

4 Neil Philip,
The Illustrated Book of Myths, Tales and Legends of the World
, London, Dorling Kindersley, 1995, pp. 108–9.

5 See Moti Lal Bhargava,
Indian Ocean Strategies through the Ages, with Rare and Antique Maps
, New Delhi, Reliance Publishing House, 1990, pp. 7–25; several articles in S.R. Rao, ed.,
Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries
, Dona Paula, Goa, National Institute of Oceanography, 1988; and I. Kuntara Wiryamartana, 'The "Sea" in Old Javanese Literature', in V.J.H. Houben et al., eds,
Looking in Odd Mirrors: the Java Sea
, Leiden, University of Leiden, 1992, pp. 97–111.

6 'The Birth of the Indian Ocean',
Nature
, 337, February 1999, pp. 506–7.

7 Miriam Estensen,
Discovery: The Quest for the Great South Land
, Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1998, pp. 1–4.

8
Sydney Morning Herald
, 6 May 2000.

9 David Christian, '"Big History", Globalisation and Australia: Towards a More Inclusive Account of the Past',
Proceedings
of the Australian Academy of the Humanities, 2000, p. 145; P. Bellwood, 'From Bird's Head to Bird's Eye View: Long Term Structures and Trends in Indo-Pacific Prehistory', in J. Miedema, C. Ode and R.A.C. Dam, eds,
Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia
, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1998.

10 Moira Tampoe,
Maritime Trade between China and the West
:
An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th centuries AD
, Oxford, B.A.R., 1989, p. 1.

11 Jacques-Yves Cousteau,
The Living Sea
, New York, Nick Lyons Books, 1963, pp. 179–80.

12 Heyerdahl,
Tigris
, passim, and Basil Greenhill,
Archaeology of the Boat: A New Introductory Survey
, London, A & C Black, 1976, pp. 97–9.

13 P. David Sentance, 'The Mtepe: The Origins and Longevity of an East African Craft',
Great Circle
, III, 1, 1981, pp. 1–9.

14 Sir Thomas Bowrey,
A Geographical Account of Countries Around the Bay of Bengal
, Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1905, pp. 42–4.

15 Maria Graham,
Journal of a Residence in India
, Edinburgh, A. Constable, 1812, pp. 124, 127.

16 Roderich Ptak, ed., J.V.G. Mills trans.,
The Overall Survey of the Star Raft by Fei Hsin
, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1996, p. 57.

17 George F. Hourani, revised and expanded by John Carswell,
Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Medieval Times
, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1951, 1995, p. 129.

18 Jonathan Mark Kenoyer,
Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
, Karachi, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 96–8; Graham Chandler, 'Traders of the Plain' [Indus Valley],
Aramco World
, September–October, 1999, pp. 35–42.

19 Romila Thapar, 'Early Mediterranean Contacts with India: An Overview', in F. De Romanis and A. Tchernia, eds,
Crossings
, New Delhi, Manohar, 1997, p. 12.

20 Mark Horton and John Middleton,
The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society
, Oxford, Blackwell, 2000, pp. 28–30.

21 Ibid., p. 9.

22 Andre Tchernia, 'Winds and Coins', in De Romanis and Tchernia, eds,
Crossings
, pp. 250–60.

23 H.P. Ray, 'Maritime Archaeology of the Indian Ocean: An Overview', in Himanshu Prabha Ray and Jean-Francois Salles, eds,
Tradition and Archeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean
, New Delhi, Manohar, 1996, p. 2. For an exhaustive study of the date of the Periplus see Christian Robin, 'The Date of the Periplus', in De Romanis and Tchernia, eds,
Crossings
, pp. 41–65. Gerard Fussman, 'The Periplus and the Political History of India', in ibid., pp. 66–71 dates it to 40 CE.

24 Warmington, quoted in Himanshu Prabha Ray, 'The Western Indian Ocean and the Early Maritime Links of the Indian Subcontinent',
Indian Economic and Social History Review
, 31, 1, 1994, p. 70.

25 D.W. MacDowall, 'The Evidence of the Gazetteer of Roman Artefacts in India', in Ray and Salles, eds,
Tradition and Archeology
, p. 79.

26 Hourani,
Arab Seafaring
, pp. 135–6.

27 Basham,
The Wonder
, pp. 226–31.

28 S.E. Sidebotham and W.Z.Wendrich, 'Berenike',
Indian Ocean Review
, December 1999, p. 16.

29 Ananda Abeydeera, 'The Factual Description of a Sea Route to India and Ceylon by a Greek Master Mariner from Roman Egypt', in
Deutsches Schiffahrtsarchiv
, XIX, 1996, pp. 200, 207.

30 See R. Champakalakshmi,
Trade Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300
, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.

31 R.P. Kangle,
The Kautilya Arthasastra
, Bombay, University of Bombay, 3 vols, 1965–72, II, pp. 162–4 for the text, and the gloss in III, p. 179.

32 G.W.B. Huntingford, ed.,
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
, London, Hakluyt, 1980, pp. 37, 103.

33 Horton and Middleton,
The Swahili
, p. 31; S. Qudratullah Fatimi, 'In Search Of A Methodology For The History Of Muslim Navigation In The Indian Ocean',
Islamic Quarterly
[Great Britain], 20–2 (1–2), 1978, p. 45.

34 A.M. Juma, 'The Swahili and the Mediterranean Worlds: Potteries of the Late Romen Period from Zanzibar',
Antiquity
, 70, 1996, pp. 148–54.

35 Valeria Fiorani Piacentini, 'International Indian Ocean Routes and Gwadar Kuh-Batil Settlement in Makran',
Nuova Rivista Storica
, May–August 1988, p. 308 and passim, pp. 307–44; R.A. Donkin,
Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl Fishing, Origins to the Age of Discovery
, Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1998, p. 95.