The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (106 page)
Authors: Susan Wise Bauer
BOOK: The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade
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This included the administrative districts of Pannonia, Dacia, Thracia, and Macedonia.
This included the administrative districts of Pannonia, Dacia, Thracia, and Macedonia.
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The Incarnation is the central doctrine of Christianity: that God came to earth in the person of Jesus Christ.
The Incarnation is the central doctrine of Christianity: that God came to earth in the person of Jesus Christ.
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A dizzying number of religions and practices can be classified as “gnostic”: generally a gnostic religion is one that requires its followers to search out a high level of knowledge (gnosis) which only a select few can ever truly attain. Interested readers may want to consult Karen King’s
What Is Gnosticism?
(Belknap Press, 2005), particularly the first chapter, “Why Is Gnosticism So Hard to Define?”
A dizzying number of religions and practices can be classified as “gnostic”: generally a gnostic religion is one that requires its followers to search out a high level of knowledge (gnosis) which only a select few can ever truly attain. Interested readers may want to consult Karen King’s
What Is Gnosticism?
(Belknap Press, 2005), particularly the first chapter, “Why Is Gnosticism So Hard to Define?”
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Since the earliest days of Christianity, each Christian church had a senior leader, an “overseer” (
episkopos
) or “bishop” who assumed ultimate responsibility for the flock. By the fourth century, each city containing a Christian church had a bishop who represented all of the Christians in that particular geographic area.
Since the earliest days of Christianity, each Christian church had a senior leader, an “overseer” (
episkopos
) or “bishop” who assumed ultimate responsibility for the flock. By the fourth century, each city containing a Christian church had a bishop who represented all of the Christians in that particular geographic area.
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Platonic philosophy had no place for ranked divinities, all of whom belonged to the divine realm (the realm of the Ideal), but some of whom were less ideal than others.
Platonic philosophy had no place for ranked divinities, all of whom belonged to the divine realm (the realm of the Ideal), but some of whom were less ideal than others.
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The Jin dynasty is sometimes transcribed “Chin”; “Jin” is the Pinyin transcription. As in the first volume of this series, I have chosen to use Pinyin transcription for Chinese characters unless another transcription for a particular name is so familiar that use of the Pinyin might cause confusion (i.e., the Yangtze river becomes Chang Jiang in Pinyin, but I have chosen to retain the better-known romanization for clarity’s sake).
I have also used only one name for each emperor. Typically, a Chinese emperor was known by his birth name until his accession, when he took an imperial name. He was then awarded a posthumous name, and after the Han dynasty, emperors were often given a temple name as well. Some emperors were also known by courtesy names (adopted later in life to indicate maturity). This is confusing for the general reader, so in most cases I have chosen to use the imperial name to refer to each emperor even before his accession. For clarity’s sake, I have given each emperor his dynasty’s name for a prefix, even though this is not customary for some of the dynasties and emperors we will encounter later. Emperor Huaidi of the Jin dynasty thus appears as Jin Huaidi; Emperor Ruizong of the Tang dynasty will be referred to as Tang Ruizong.
The Jin dynasty is sometimes transcribed “Chin”; “Jin” is the Pinyin transcription. As in the first volume of this series, I have chosen to use Pinyin transcription for Chinese characters unless another transcription for a particular name is so familiar that use of the Pinyin might cause confusion (i.e., the Yangtze river becomes Chang Jiang in Pinyin, but I have chosen to retain the better-known romanization for clarity’s sake).
I have also used only one name for each emperor. Typically, a Chinese emperor was known by his birth name until his accession, when he took an imperial name. He was then awarded a posthumous name, and after the Han dynasty, emperors were often given a temple name as well. Some emperors were also known by courtesy names (adopted later in life to indicate maturity). This is confusing for the general reader, so in most cases I have chosen to use the imperial name to refer to each emperor even before his accession. For clarity’s sake, I have given each emperor his dynasty’s name for a prefix, even though this is not customary for some of the dynasties and emperors we will encounter later. Emperor Huaidi of the Jin dynasty thus appears as Jin Huaidi; Emperor Ruizong of the Tang dynasty will be referred to as Tang Ruizong.
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Jianye is also known as Jiankang. The Jin dynasty held power from 265 to 420; the latter half of the Jin rule, when Jin power was pushed to the southeast, is known as the period of the Eastern Jin (317–420). Sometimes the earlier part of the dynasty (265–316) is called the Western Jin to distinguish the two eras.
Jianye is also known as Jiankang. The Jin dynasty held power from 265 to 420; the latter half of the Jin rule, when Jin power was pushed to the southeast, is known as the period of the Eastern Jin (317–420). Sometimes the earlier part of the dynasty (265–316) is called the Western Jin to distinguish the two eras.
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Or “Northern Wei,” to distinguish it from an earlier kingdom also known as “Wei.”
Or “Northern Wei,” to distinguish it from an earlier kingdom also known as “Wei.”
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The kingdom of Axum lay in the area also known, in Greek and Latin sources, as Abyssinia and Ethiopia. The Romans had also used “Ethiopia” to refer to Nubia, the southern Egyptian kingdom; and sometimes Axum is simply called “Ethiopia.” In the same way, the Himyarite kingdom of Arabia lies in the area also known as Yemen, and sometimes is referred to as Yemen. I have avoided using either Ethiopia or Yemen when talking about the kingdoms of the fourth and fifth centuries, since both terms serve as more general geographic labels.
The kingdom of Axum lay in the area also known, in Greek and Latin sources, as Abyssinia and Ethiopia. The Romans had also used “Ethiopia” to refer to Nubia, the southern Egyptian kingdom; and sometimes Axum is simply called “Ethiopia.” In the same way, the Himyarite kingdom of Arabia lies in the area also known as Yemen, and sometimes is referred to as Yemen. I have avoided using either Ethiopia or Yemen when talking about the kingdoms of the fourth and fifth centuries, since both terms serve as more general geographic labels.
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The “tearing of the shoulders,” a custom that seems to have been peculiar to Shapur II, did not necessarily kill the victim; instead it left the sword-arm, used to fight against the Persian king, useless and dangling.
The “tearing of the shoulders,” a custom that seems to have been peculiar to Shapur II, did not necessarily kill the victim; instead it left the sword-arm, used to fight against the Persian king, useless and dangling.
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This belief was based on Matthew 16:18, where Jesus says to Peter, “Upon this rock I will build my church.” The Roman church interpreted this as saying that Peter was the founding apostle of the Christian church; since Peter then went to Rome to preach, the Roman Christians also considered Rome the birthplace of the church.
This belief was based on Matthew 16:18, where Jesus says to Peter, “Upon this rock I will build my church.” The Roman church interpreted this as saying that Peter was the founding apostle of the Christian church; since Peter then went to Rome to preach, the Roman Christians also considered Rome the birthplace of the church.
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The other two were Valerian (Persia, 260) and Decius (Goths, 251).
The other two were Valerian (Persia, 260) and Decius (Goths, 251).
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The six towns were Eboracum (modern York), Verulamium (St. Albans), Glevum (Gloucester), Lindum (Lincoln), Camulodunum (Colchester), and Londinium (London).
The six towns were Eboracum (modern York), Verulamium (St. Albans), Glevum (Gloucester), Lindum (Lincoln), Camulodunum (Colchester), and Londinium (London).
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These pirates were known to the Romans as “Scoti,” from the word in their own language that means “plunderers.” This confuses the issue, as the Scoti were not from the modern land of Scotland, but rather from the island now known as Ireland. So technically the “Scots,” at this point, were Irish.
These pirates were known to the Romans as “Scoti,” from the word in their own language that means “plunderers.” This confuses the issue, as the Scoti were not from the modern land of Scotland, but rather from the island now known as Ireland. So technically the “Scots,” at this point, were Irish.
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Linguistically, the peoples of the peninsula were separate from the Chinese quite early; their language belonged to the “Tungusic” group of languages, which is different from the “Sinitic” group of languages to which “Old Chinese” (or “Archaic Chinese”), the oldest form of written Chinese, belongs.
Linguistically, the peoples of the peninsula were separate from the Chinese quite early; their language belonged to the “Tungusic” group of languages, which is different from the “Sinitic” group of languages to which “Old Chinese” (or “Archaic Chinese”), the oldest form of written Chinese, belongs.
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The battlefield may have been blasted by a wind known as the “bora,” formed when cold air is sucked into a low-pressure area over the Adriatic. Frederick Singleton notes that the bora can gust up to 100 mph and can cause a rapid temperature drop of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. See
A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples
(Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 1–2.
The battlefield may have been blasted by a wind known as the “bora,” formed when cold air is sucked into a low-pressure area over the Adriatic. Frederick Singleton notes that the bora can gust up to 100 mph and can cause a rapid temperature drop of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. See
A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples
(Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 1–2.
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“Illyricum” was the name for the larger area in which the provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, Thracia, and Macedonia lay—the modern countries of Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Albania.
“Illyricum” was the name for the larger area in which the provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, Thracia, and Macedonia lay—the modern countries of Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Albania.
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It would be finished in 438 as the Codex Theodosianus, the basis for Justinian’s law code; see chapter 28.
It would be finished in 438 as the Codex Theodosianus, the basis for Justinian’s law code; see chapter 28.
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The positions were also defined by the way in which they referred to Mary. If, in Jesus, God and man were mystically one, Mary was
theotokos
, the Mother of God; if the divine and human natures were mixed together, she was instead
christotokos
, the Mother of Christ.
The positions were also defined by the way in which they referred to Mary. If, in Jesus, God and man were mystically one, Mary was
theotokos
, the Mother of God; if the divine and human natures were mixed together, she was instead
christotokos
, the Mother of Christ.
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Many other sources refer to the Hephthalites as “White Huns,” an equally inaccurate designation.
Many other sources refer to the Hephthalites as “White Huns,” an equally inaccurate designation.
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The Liu Song (also transliterated as plain Song and as Sung) ruled in the southeast from 420 to 479.
The Liu Song (also transliterated as plain Song and as Sung) ruled in the southeast from 420 to 479.
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Monophysitism held that Christ’s divine and human natures were mystically united into an indivisible whole; see chapter 12.
Monophysitism held that Christ’s divine and human natures were mystically united into an indivisible whole; see chapter 12.
†
The same term was later used of Vatican II by some Catholics.
The same term was later used of Vatican II by some Catholics.
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Many of the Christians who went to Persia were Nestorians, who believed that the Council of Chalcedon had not made enough distinction between Christ’s two natures. Ultimately, the difference in doctrine would split the Christians of Persia decisively away from both Rome and Constantinople; the branch of Nestorian Christianity thus formed would be known as the Syrian Orthodox Church.
Many of the Christians who went to Persia were Nestorians, who believed that the Council of Chalcedon had not made enough distinction between Christ’s two natures. Ultimately, the difference in doctrine would split the Christians of Persia decisively away from both Rome and Constantinople; the branch of Nestorian Christianity thus formed would be known as the Syrian Orthodox Church.
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The Theodosian dynasty ruled from 379 to 457; the Leonid dynasty, which followed, ruled from 457 to 518.
The Theodosian dynasty ruled from 379 to 457; the Leonid dynasty, which followed, ruled from 457 to 518.
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This story is complicated by the number of Goths named Theoderic. Theoderic the Ostrogoth should not be confused with Theodoric I or Theodoric II, both of whom were kings of the Visigothic confederation. In addition, there were actually two coalitions of Ostrogoths, each one led by a general named Theoderic. The general referred to here is the first Theoderic: Theoderic the Ostrogoth, who would become known as Theoderic the Great. He commanded Ostrogoths from Pannonia, while his distant cousin Theoderic the Squinter, named after his unfortunate eyes, was from Thracia. The two generals were not automatic allies since they were competing for the same scarce resources. They acted together against Zeno at least once, and Zeno had allied himself with one Theoderic against the other at various times. However, Theoderic the Squinter died around 481, after which Theoderic the Great dominated the Ostrogoths.
This story is complicated by the number of Goths named Theoderic. Theoderic the Ostrogoth should not be confused with Theodoric I or Theodoric II, both of whom were kings of the Visigothic confederation. In addition, there were actually two coalitions of Ostrogoths, each one led by a general named Theoderic. The general referred to here is the first Theoderic: Theoderic the Ostrogoth, who would become known as Theoderic the Great. He commanded Ostrogoths from Pannonia, while his distant cousin Theoderic the Squinter, named after his unfortunate eyes, was from Thracia. The two generals were not automatic allies since they were competing for the same scarce resources. They acted together against Zeno at least once, and Zeno had allied himself with one Theoderic against the other at various times. However, Theoderic the Squinter died around 481, after which Theoderic the Great dominated the Ostrogoths.
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This is known as the Nevarsek Treaty; as a result of the treaty, Armenia was able to preserve itself as a nation.
This is known as the Nevarsek Treaty; as a result of the treaty, Armenia was able to preserve itself as a nation.
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Contemporary historians called the Slavs “Getae” because they first appeared in the territory where the ancient Getae had once lived.
Contemporary historians called the Slavs “Getae” because they first appeared in the territory where the ancient Getae had once lived.
†
The “original homeland” of the Slavs is an academic issue, which, like many having to do with ethnicity, is also political in nature.
The “original homeland” of the Slavs is an academic issue, which, like many having to do with ethnicity, is also political in nature.
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I have chosen to use “Byzantium” rather than “Byzantine Empire” to refer to the eastern half of the old Roman empire; so far as we know, the term “Byzantine Empire” is a later name, not used by the residents of Byzantium themselves.
I have chosen to use “Byzantium” rather than “Byzantine Empire” to refer to the eastern half of the old Roman empire; so far as we know, the term “Byzantine Empire” is a later name, not used by the residents of Byzantium themselves.
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As a reminder: Manicheans tended to see good and evil as equal opposed forces, while Chalcedonian Christianity asserted the omnipotence of the good God and the ultimate subordination of evil; Nestorians believed that Christ had two separate natures, human and divine, while Chalcedonian Christianity argued that the two natures were distinct but mystically combined into one in Jesus, who was thus both God and Man indivisibly. Thus both of the “heresies” tended towards dualism, while Chalcedonian Christianity tended towards unity.
As a reminder: Manicheans tended to see good and evil as equal opposed forces, while Chalcedonian Christianity asserted the omnipotence of the good God and the ultimate subordination of evil; Nestorians believed that Christ had two separate natures, human and divine, while Chalcedonian Christianity argued that the two natures were distinct but mystically combined into one in Jesus, who was thus both God and Man indivisibly. Thus both of the “heresies” tended towards dualism, while Chalcedonian Christianity tended towards unity.
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Probably. David Keys has done an extensive review of the evidence for a disastrous 535 eruption of Krakatoa in his 1999 book
Catastrophe
(Ballantine Books); other dates have been suggested, but tree-ring data seem to make the 535 date most likely.
Probably. David Keys has done an extensive review of the evidence for a disastrous 535 eruption of Krakatoa in his 1999 book
Catastrophe
(Ballantine Books); other dates have been suggested, but tree-ring data seem to make the 535 date most likely.
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An El Niño event occurs when the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean near the South American coast warms significantly. The change shifts weather patterns, producing violent storms and flooding in some areas of South America. El Niño can also drastically reduce the fish population in heavily fished areas, causing difficulties for peoples who rely on them for food. The drought and flooding in Central and South America between 535 and 593 are well documented by scientists who have examined tree rings, lake deposits, and other physical evidence. Its cause is still debated. The Krakatoa eruption is, in my opinion, the most likely explanation; however, arguments have also been made for the eruption of El Chichón or the impact of a comet in North America.
An El Niño event occurs when the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean near the South American coast warms significantly. The change shifts weather patterns, producing violent storms and flooding in some areas of South America. El Niño can also drastically reduce the fish population in heavily fished areas, causing difficulties for peoples who rely on them for food. The drought and flooding in Central and South America between 535 and 593 are well documented by scientists who have examined tree rings, lake deposits, and other physical evidence. Its cause is still debated. The Krakatoa eruption is, in my opinion, the most likely explanation; however, arguments have also been made for the eruption of El Chichón or the impact of a comet in North America.
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“Teotihuacan” is the name given to the city, long after its fall, by the Aztecs (who do not enter the historical record for some centuries yet). The city’s ancient name is unknown.
“Teotihuacan” is the name given to the city, long after its fall, by the Aztecs (who do not enter the historical record for some centuries yet). The city’s ancient name is unknown.
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The decades of destruction (the length of the break varied from 60 years at some cities to as long as 120 years at others) are generally considered to be the closing years of the Early Classic Period in Mesoamerican history. The so-called Pre-Classic Period stretches from around 1500
BC
to
AD
250; after this, archaeologists divide Mesoamerican civilization into Early Classic (c. 250–650), Late Classic (c. 650–900), Early Post-Classic (900–1200), and Late Post-Classic (from 1200 to the Spanish Conquest). See Richard E. W. Adams,
Ancient Civilizations of the New World
(Westview Press, 1997), chapters 2 and 3.
The decades of destruction (the length of the break varied from 60 years at some cities to as long as 120 years at others) are generally considered to be the closing years of the Early Classic Period in Mesoamerican history. The so-called Pre-Classic Period stretches from around 1500
BC
to
AD
250; after this, archaeologists divide Mesoamerican civilization into Early Classic (c. 250–650), Late Classic (c. 650–900), Early Post-Classic (900–1200), and Late Post-Classic (from 1200 to the Spanish Conquest). See Richard E. W. Adams,
Ancient Civilizations of the New World
(Westview Press, 1997), chapters 2 and 3.
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Some sources suggest that the conversion took place a century earlier, under the king Karib Asad (ruled 385–420), but the weight of evidence seems to be with Dhu Nuwas. Either way, the motivation of the conversion would have been the same. See Tudor Parfitt,
The Road to Redemption
(Brill Academic, 1996), pp. 7ff.
Some sources suggest that the conversion took place a century earlier, under the king Karib Asad (ruled 385–420), but the weight of evidence seems to be with Dhu Nuwas. Either way, the motivation of the conversion would have been the same. See Tudor Parfitt,
The Road to Redemption
(Brill Academic, 1996), pp. 7ff.
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