The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (107 page)
Authors: Susan Wise Bauer
BOOK: The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade
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Other versions of this story have Solomon and the queen of the Sabeans bearing a son together; the son, Menelik, takes the Ark across into Axum. But none of these stories begin to show up until about the eighth century
AD
, and all of them probably stem from the historical events given above.
Other versions of this story have Solomon and the queen of the Sabeans bearing a son together; the son, Menelik, takes the Ark across into Axum. But none of these stories begin to show up until about the eighth century
AD
, and all of them probably stem from the historical events given above.
*
See chapter 22.
See chapter 22.
*
Anthemius was both an architect and a mathematician of note; he wrote several treatises covering the properties of cones, parabolas, and ellipses that were studied for centuries afterward. See, for example, “Roman Architects” in
The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession
, ed. Spiro Kostoff (Oxford University Press, 1977).
Anthemius was both an architect and a mathematician of note; he wrote several treatises covering the properties of cones, parabolas, and ellipses that were studied for centuries afterward. See, for example, “Roman Architects” in
The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession
, ed. Spiro Kostoff (Oxford University Press, 1977).
*
Although Buddhist statues and books may have arrived in Japan before 552, this is the generally accepted date for the introduction of the Buddhist religion to the island. See Robert Reischauer,
Early Japanese History
(c. 40
BC–AD
1167), part A (Peter Smith, 1967), pp. 134ff, for a brief summary of the debate.
Although Buddhist statues and books may have arrived in Japan before 552, this is the generally accepted date for the introduction of the Buddhist religion to the island. See Robert Reischauer,
Early Japanese History
(c. 40
BC–AD
1167), part A (Peter Smith, 1967), pp. 134ff, for a brief summary of the debate.
†
The Jomon period runs from around 10,000 to 400
BC
. Archaeologists further divide the Jomon period into Incipient Jomon (10,000–7500
BC
), Initial Jomon (7500–4000
BC
), Early Jomon (4000–3000
BC
), Middle Jomon (3000–2000
BC
), Late Jomon (2000–1000
BC
), and Final Jomon (1000
BC–AD
400), each period distinguished by developments in pottery style and advances in farming and other cultural attainments.
The Jomon period runs from around 10,000 to 400
BC
. Archaeologists further divide the Jomon period into Incipient Jomon (10,000–7500
BC
), Initial Jomon (7500–4000
BC
), Early Jomon (4000–3000
BC
), Middle Jomon (3000–2000
BC
), Late Jomon (2000–1000
BC
), and Final Jomon (1000
BC–AD
400), each period distinguished by developments in pottery style and advances in farming and other cultural attainments.
*
The Yamato dynasty was divided into two parts: the Kofun period (270–c. 538) and the Asuka period (538–715). Both names are designations for types of burial mounds used during these times.
The Yamato dynasty was divided into two parts: the Kofun period (270–c. 538) and the Asuka period (538–715). Both names are designations for types of burial mounds used during these times.
†
I have followed Joan Piggott in avoiding the use of the terms “emperor” and “imperial” for the power of the Japanese sovereign during this period. Piggott writes, “The term
empire
is strongly associated with a martial political formation founded on conquest…. In contrast, the
tenno…
did not conquer his realm, he had no standing army save some frontier forces, and the realm remained significantly segmented” (
The Emergence of Japanese Kingship
(Stanford University Press, 1997), p. 8).
I have followed Joan Piggott in avoiding the use of the terms “emperor” and “imperial” for the power of the Japanese sovereign during this period. Piggott writes, “The term
empire
is strongly associated with a martial political formation founded on conquest…. In contrast, the
tenno…
did not conquer his realm, he had no standing army save some frontier forces, and the realm remained significantly segmented” (
The Emergence of Japanese Kingship
(Stanford University Press, 1997), p. 8).
*
The Byzantine hold on patches of land in Italy would persist for centuries, with the relationships of the Byzantine-loyal cities to the throne at Constantinople growing more and more complex, but the empire would never again dominate the peninsula.
The Byzantine hold on patches of land in Italy would persist for centuries, with the relationships of the Byzantine-loyal cities to the throne at Constantinople growing more and more complex, but the empire would never again dominate the peninsula.
†
This high-water mark applies to the medieval Persian empire, often known as “Sasanian Persia” to distinguish it from the ancient Persian empire, which lay in the same general area but lost its independence to Alexander the Great. Persia did not regain its existence as an independent kingdom until a man from the Sasanian clan declared himself Ardashir, emperor of a revived Persia, in
AD
224.
This high-water mark applies to the medieval Persian empire, often known as “Sasanian Persia” to distinguish it from the ancient Persian empire, which lay in the same general area but lost its independence to Alexander the Great. Persia did not regain its existence as an independent kingdom until a man from the Sasanian clan declared himself Ardashir, emperor of a revived Persia, in
AD
224.
*
See map 28.1.
See map 28.1.
*
See chapter 22.
See chapter 22.
*
A
wadi
is a valley whose floor becomes a river or stream during times of rain.
A
wadi
is a valley whose floor becomes a river or stream during times of rain.
*
The Qur’an uses both first-person singular and first-person plural pronouns for Allah. This does not imply plurality; the Arabic form, like the archaic “royal we” in English, conveys authority and command and is sometimes called the “plural of majesty.” Some Arabic dialects also mix the first-person singular and first-person plural in colloquial conversation. See Abd Allah ibn Umar Baydawi et al.,
Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam
(Brill, 2001), p. 894; William C. Chittick,
The Sufi Path of Knowledge
(SUNY Press, 1989), p. 385; Abd Allah b. Buluggin,
The Tibyan
(Brill, 1997), p.11.
The Qur’an uses both first-person singular and first-person plural pronouns for Allah. This does not imply plurality; the Arabic form, like the archaic “royal we” in English, conveys authority and command and is sometimes called the “plural of majesty.” Some Arabic dialects also mix the first-person singular and first-person plural in colloquial conversation. See Abd Allah ibn Umar Baydawi et al.,
Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam
(Brill, 2001), p. 894; William C. Chittick,
The Sufi Path of Knowledge
(SUNY Press, 1989), p. 385; Abd Allah b. Buluggin,
The Tibyan
(Brill, 1997), p.11.
†
The Arabic tribes were supposed to observe four sacred months per year: the eleventh (Dhu al-Qi’dah), twelfth (Dhu al-Hijjah), and first (Muharram) in succession, providing a three-month break from fighting; and the seventh (Rajab). Since the old Arabic calendar was lunar, these months moved from year to year, and the tribal chiefs were fairly casual about delaying the beginning of the sacred times if they weren’t quite finished with an ongoing war.
The Arabic tribes were supposed to observe four sacred months per year: the eleventh (Dhu al-Qi’dah), twelfth (Dhu al-Hijjah), and first (Muharram) in succession, providing a three-month break from fighting; and the seventh (Rajab). Since the old Arabic calendar was lunar, these months moved from year to year, and the tribal chiefs were fairly casual about delaying the beginning of the sacred times if they weren’t quite finished with an ongoing war.
*
For simplicity I will refer to the prophet Muhammad as “Muhammad” throughout, although this was not his birth name.
For simplicity I will refer to the prophet Muhammad as “Muhammad” throughout, although this was not his birth name.
†
Ishaq lists seven children, but it is likely (given Khadija’s age) that four of these were either orphans raised by Khadija or children from one of her two previous marriages.
Ishaq lists seven children, but it is likely (given Khadija’s age) that four of these were either orphans raised by Khadija or children from one of her two previous marriages.
*
In English, the initials
AH
stand for the Latin phrase
anno Hegirae
, coined by western writers centuries later.
In English, the initials
AH
stand for the Latin phrase
anno Hegirae
, coined by western writers centuries later.
*
What remains unclear is whether Ali himself accepted Abu Bakr’s legitimacy—or whether he simply ceased to press his claims, out of a desire to maintain unity among the Islamic tribes. Muslim oral traditions preserve both points of view. The former tradition is accepted by those who call themselves Sunni Muslims; they believe that the passing of the caliphate to Abu Bakr was legitimate, and that the line of caliphs who follow him is thus also legitimate. Those who disagree and support Ali as the divinely chosen successor of Muhammad were known as Shi’at Ali, “The Party of Ali”—today, Shi’ite Muslims. The division did not occur in Islam until considerably later, but it is rooted in the events of 632.
What remains unclear is whether Ali himself accepted Abu Bakr’s legitimacy—or whether he simply ceased to press his claims, out of a desire to maintain unity among the Islamic tribes. Muslim oral traditions preserve both points of view. The former tradition is accepted by those who call themselves Sunni Muslims; they believe that the passing of the caliphate to Abu Bakr was legitimate, and that the line of caliphs who follow him is thus also legitimate. Those who disagree and support Ali as the divinely chosen successor of Muhammad were known as Shi’at Ali, “The Party of Ali”—today, Shi’ite Muslims. The division did not occur in Islam until considerably later, but it is rooted in the events of 632.
*
Leviticus 21:16–23.
Leviticus 21:16–23.
*
See map 40.1.
See map 40.1.
*
The “Second Temple” was built in the sixth century
BC
to replace Solomon’s Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians. See Susan Wise Bauer,
The History of the Ancient World
(W. W. Norton, 2007), pp. 453–454, 466–467.
The “Second Temple” was built in the sixth century
BC
to replace Solomon’s Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians. See Susan Wise Bauer,
The History of the Ancient World
(W. W. Norton, 2007), pp. 453–454, 466–467.
*
The city administrator Philippikos (711–713) had been replaced first by his secretary Anastasios II (713–715) and then by the tax official Theodosius III (715–717).
The city administrator Philippikos (711–713) had been replaced first by his secretary Anastasios II (713–715) and then by the tax official Theodosius III (715–717).
*
These were Theuderic III of Neustria, then Theuderic’s two sons, Clovis IV (691–695) and Childebert III (695–711), and then Childebert’s son Dagobert II (711–715).
These were Theuderic III of Neustria, then Theuderic’s two sons, Clovis IV (691–695) and Childebert III (695–711), and then Childebert’s son Dagobert II (711–715).
*
The Carolingian dynasty took its name from
Carolus,
the Latin form of Charles Martel’s name.
The Carolingian dynasty took its name from
Carolus,
the Latin form of Charles Martel’s name.
†
Excommunication blocked a single person from taking part in the sacraments of the church; interdict blocked an entire community. When the church declared an interdict over a country or province, no one within it could receive a sacrament and all public worship was halted.
Excommunication blocked a single person from taking part in the sacraments of the church; interdict blocked an entire community. When the church declared an interdict over a country or province, no one within it could receive a sacrament and all public worship was halted.
*
The birth year of Charles (Charlemagne) is not known for certain; it has traditionally been listed as 742, but more likely was 747 or 748.
The birth year of Charles (Charlemagne) is not known for certain; it has traditionally been listed as 742, but more likely was 747 or 748.
*
The Vascones were probably the ancestors of the present-day Basque people, who still live in the same mountain region.
The Vascones were probably the ancestors of the present-day Basque people, who still live in the same mountain region.
*
From the eighth century on, the Great Wall of China plays a much less important role in the defense of the frontier; for clarity’s sake, it does not appear on maps after 50.1.
From the eighth century on, the Great Wall of China plays a much less important role in the defense of the frontier; for clarity’s sake, it does not appear on maps after 50.1.
*
Charlemagne’s oldest son, Pippin the Hunchback, had quarrelled with his father and been disinherited, and Charlemagne then renamed his third son, Carloman, “Pippin” so that he would still have a Pippin in the family line.
Charlemagne’s oldest son, Pippin the Hunchback, had quarrelled with his father and been disinherited, and Charlemagne then renamed his third son, Carloman, “Pippin” so that he would still have a Pippin in the family line.
*
Charlemagne’s intellectual curiosity and his personal tutor’s teaching combined to spark a revival of learning often called the “Carolingian renaissance”: innovations in art, music, architecture, and calligraphy can be traced back to their beginnings under Charlemagne’s sponsorship.
Charlemagne’s intellectual curiosity and his personal tutor’s teaching combined to spark a revival of learning often called the “Carolingian renaissance”: innovations in art, music, architecture, and calligraphy can be traced back to their beginnings under Charlemagne’s sponsorship.
*
Christianity had spread through southern England after Augustine’s mission to the court of Ethelbert in 596; in 664, the Synod of Whitby declared England to be a Christian country, subject to the authority of the pope.
Christianity had spread through southern England after Augustine’s mission to the court of Ethelbert in 596; in 664, the Synod of Whitby declared England to be a Christian country, subject to the authority of the pope.
*
The dinar was a gold coin with a standard weight of 4.25 grams; the dirham was a silver coin of 3 grams. Typically, twenty dirhams equalled one dinar. See Jere L. Bacharach, “The Dinar versus the Ducat,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies
4:1 (Jan. 1973), pp. 82–84.
The dinar was a gold coin with a standard weight of 4.25 grams; the dirham was a silver coin of 3 grams. Typically, twenty dirhams equalled one dinar. See Jere L. Bacharach, “The Dinar versus the Ducat,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies
4:1 (Jan. 1973), pp. 82–84.
*
II Kings 18–19.
II Kings 18–19.
*
Not the same as the modern city of Nagaoka; see inset of Map 53.1.
Not the same as the modern city of Nagaoka; see inset of Map 53.1.
*
The move to Heian marked the end of the “Nara period” (710–794) and the beginning of the “Heian period” (794–1185) in Japanese history.
The move to Heian marked the end of the “Nara period” (710–794) and the beginning of the “Heian period” (794–1185) in Japanese history.
†
Heizei recovered, unexpectedly, and mounted an attempt to get the throne back, which ended badly; Saga resisted, Heizei’s accomplices were arrested or committed suicide, and the ex–heavenly sovereign was forced to enter a Buddhist monastery, where he remained until his death fourteen years later.
Heizei recovered, unexpectedly, and mounted an attempt to get the throne back, which ended badly; Saga resisted, Heizei’s accomplices were arrested or committed suicide, and the ex–heavenly sovereign was forced to enter a Buddhist monastery, where he remained until his death fourteen years later.
*
The Five Dynasties were the Later Liang (907–923), Later Tang (923–936), Later Jin (936–947), Later Han (947–951), and Later Zhou (951–960); the Ten Kingdoms were the Wu (907–937), Wuyue (907–978), Min (909–945), Chu (907–951), Southern Han (917–971), Former Shu (907–925), Later Shu (934–965), Jingnan (924–963), Southern Tang (937–975), and Northern Han (951–979).
The Five Dynasties were the Later Liang (907–923), Later Tang (923–936), Later Jin (936–947), Later Han (947–951), and Later Zhou (951–960); the Ten Kingdoms were the Wu (907–937), Wuyue (907–978), Min (909–945), Chu (907–951), Southern Han (917–971), Former Shu (907–925), Later Shu (934–965), Jingnan (924–963), Southern Tang (937–975), and Northern Han (951–979).
*
Pippin the Hunchback, his oldest son, had been disinherited and sent to a monastery, where he died in 811. (Pippin of Italy had originally been named Carloman, but when Pippin the Hunchback was disinherited, Charlemagne renamed his third son Pippin.)
Pippin the Hunchback, his oldest son, had been disinherited and sent to a monastery, where he died in 811. (Pippin of Italy had originally been named Carloman, but when Pippin the Hunchback was disinherited, Charlemagne renamed his third son Pippin.)
*
Charles the Landless got Neustria, Britanny, Aquitaine, Gascony, the Spanish Marches, Septimania, and the northwestern third of Burgundy; Louis the German got East Saxony, Alemannia, Austria, Bavaria, and Carinthia; Lothair, already ruling in Italy (along with his son Louis II the Younger), got Lorraine, Alsace, Provence, the southeastern two-thirds of Burgundy, and also the northern Low Countries around the area of Frisia.
Charles the Landless got Neustria, Britanny, Aquitaine, Gascony, the Spanish Marches, Septimania, and the northwestern third of Burgundy; Louis the German got East Saxony, Alemannia, Austria, Bavaria, and Carinthia; Lothair, already ruling in Italy (along with his son Louis II the Younger), got Lorraine, Alsace, Provence, the southeastern two-thirds of Burgundy, and also the northern Low Countries around the area of Frisia.
*
Michael II ruled from 820 to 829 and was succeeded by his son Theophilus (829 to 842). Together, Michael II, Theophilus, and Michael III (842 to 867) make up the “Phrygian dynasty” of Byzantine emperors.
Michael II ruled from 820 to 829 and was succeeded by his son Theophilus (829 to 842). Together, Michael II, Theophilus, and Michael III (842 to 867) make up the “Phrygian dynasty” of Byzantine emperors.
*
The Pratihara are also known as the Gurjara Pratihara; the word “Gurjara” probably refers to their ancestry, as descendents of the central Asian Gurjaras who came down through the northern mountains just after the fall of the Guptas. See Rama Shankar Tripathi,
History of Kanauj
(Motilal Banarsidass, 1964), pp. 221–222.
The Pratihara are also known as the Gurjara Pratihara; the word “Gurjara” probably refers to their ancestry, as descendents of the central Asian Gurjaras who came down through the northern mountains just after the fall of the Guptas. See Rama Shankar Tripathi,
History of Kanauj
(Motilal Banarsidass, 1964), pp. 221–222.
*
Cyril is also widely known as Constantine, the name he used before becoming a monk.
Cyril is also widely known as Constantine, the name he used before becoming a monk.
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