The Anatomy of Violence (71 page)

Read The Anatomy of Violence Online

Authors: Adrian Raine

BOOK: The Anatomy of Violence
2.51Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub

  58.
Manning, J. T., Taylor, R. P. (2001). Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: Implications for sexual selection in humans.
Evolution and Human Behavior
22, 61–69.

  59.
Fink, B., Manning, J. T., Williams, J.H.G. & Podmore-Nappin, C. (2007). The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and developmental psychopathology in school-aged children.
Personality and Individual Differences
42, 369–79; Austin, E. J., Manning, J. T., McInroy, K. & Mathews, E. (2002). A preliminary investigation of the associations between personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio.
Personality and Individual Differences
33, 1115–24.

  60.
Hampson, E., Ellis, C. L. & Tenk, C. M. (2008). On the relation between 2D:4D and sex-dimorphic personality traits.
Archives of Sexual Behavior
37, 133–44.

  61.
Bogaert, A. F., Fawcett, C. C. & Jamieson, L. K. (2009). Attractiveness, body size, masculine sex roles and 2D:4D ratios in men.
Personality and Individual Differences
47, 273–78.

  62.
Martel, M. M., Klump, K., Nigg, J. T., Breedlove, S. M. & Sisk, C. L. (2009). Potential hormonal mechanisms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and major depressive disorder: A new perspective.
Hormones and Behavior
55, 465–79.

  63.
McFadden, D. & Schubel, E. (2002). Relative length of fingers and toes in human males and females.
Hormones and Behavior
42, 492–500.

  64.
Bailey, A. A. & Hurd, P. L. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women.
Biological Psychology
68, 215–22. It should be noted that while effects were found in males, females showed a nonsignificant trend in the predicted direction. Furthermore, effects in males were specific to physical aggression, with no effects found for verbal aggression.

  65.
Burton, L. A. (2009). Aggression, gender-typical childhood play, and a prenatal hormone index.
Social Behavior and Personality
37, 105–16. Again, males show significant effects, with females showing trends in the predicted direction.

  66.
Liu, J., Portnoy, J. & Raine, A. (2010). Association between a marker for
prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children.
Development and Psychopathology
24, 771–82.

  67.
Cousins, A. J., Fugère, M. A. & Franklin, M. (2009). Digit ratio (2D:4D), mate guarding, and physical aggression in dating couples.
Personality and Individual Differences
46, 709–13.

  68.
Ibid.

  69.
Coyne, S. M., Manning, J. T., Ringer, L. & Bailey, L. (2007). Directional asymmetry (right–left differences) in digit ratio (2D:4D) predict indirect aggression in women.
Personality and Individual Differences
43, 865–72.

  70.
Benderlioglu, Z. & Nelson, R. J. (2004). Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men.
Hormones and Behavior
46, 558–64.

  71.
McIntyre, M. H., Barrett, E. A., McDermott, R., Johnson, D.D.P., Cowden, J., et al. (2007). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game.
Personality and Individual Differences
42, 755–64.

  72.
Potegal, M. & Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in childhood anger and aggression.
Psychiatric Clinics of North America
13, 513.

  73.
McIntyre et al., Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game.

  74.
Smith, L. M., Cloak, C. C., Poland, R. E., Torday, J., Ross, M. G. (2003). Prenatal nicotine increases testosterone levels in the fetus and female offspring.
Nicotine & Tobacco Research
5, 369–74.

  75.
Rizwan, S., Manning, J. T., Brabin, B. J. (2007). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and possible effects of in utero testosterone: Evidence from the 2D:4D finger length ratio.
Early Human Development
83, 87–90.

  76.
Malas, M. A., Dogan, S., Evcil, E. H., Desdicioglu, K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D).
Early Human Development
82, 469–75.

  77.
Brennan, P., Grekin, E. & Mednick, S. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes.
Archives of General Psychiatry
56, 215–19.

  78.
Rantakallio, P., Laara, E., Isohanni, M. & Moilanen, I. (1992). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and delinquency of the offspring: An association without causation?
International Journal of Epidemiology
21, 1106–13.

  79.
Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R. & Tiihonen, J. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort.
American Journal of Psychiatry
156, 857–62.

  80.
Weissman, M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P. & Kandel, D. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
38, 892–99.

  81.
Wakschlag, L. & Hans, S. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and conduct problems in high-risk youth: A developmental framework.
Development and Psychopathology
14, 351–69.

  82.
Wakschlag, L. S. & Keenan, K. (2001). Clinical Significance and Correlates of Disruptive Behavior in Environmentally At-Risk Preschoolers.
Journal of Clinical Child Psychology
30, 262–75.

  83.
Wakschlag, L., Lahey, B., Loeber, R., Green, S., Gordon, R., et al. (1997). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of conduct disorder in boys.
Archives of General Psychiatry
54, 670–76.

  84.
Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L. & Cornelius, M. D. (2000). Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers’ behavior.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics
21, 180–88.

  85.
Fergusson, D., Woodward, L. & Horwood, L. (1998). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric adjustment in late adolescence.
Archives of General Psychiatry
55, 721–27.

  86.
Button, T.M.M., Tharpar, A. & McGuffin, P. (2005). Relationship between antisocial behaviour, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal prenatal smoking.
British Journal of Psychiatry
187, 155–60.

  87.
Although many studies have controlled for multiple confounds, including maternal and paternal antisocial behavior, it is still possible that genes could play a role. Antisocial mothers who smoke could pass their antisocial genes on to their children. One study using a twin design concluded that while there is certainly a smoking-antisocial relationship in children, it is almost entirely genetically mediated. Even in this study, authors caution that findings do not preclude an independent causal role of cigarette smoking in the genesis of child antisocial behavior; also, that findings are limited to young children, aged five to seven. They may not apply to adult offending and violence. See Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems.
Archives of General Psychiatry
6, 836–84.

  88.
Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. & Beauchaine, T. P. (2007). Direct and Passive Prenatal Nicotine Exposure and the Development of Externalizing Psychopathology.
Child Psychiatry and Human Development
38, 255–69.

  89.
Olds, D. (1997). Tobacco exposure and impaired development: A review of the evidence.
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews
3, 257–69.

  90.
Jaddoe, V.W.V., Verburg, B. O., de Ridder, M.A.J., et al. (2007). Maternal smoking and fetal growth characteristics in different periods of pregnancy: The Generation R Study.
American Journal of Epidemiology
165, 1207–15.

  91.
Toro, R., Leonard, G., Lerner, J., et al. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal cigarette smoking and the adolescent cerebral cortex.
Neuropsychopharmacology
33, 1019–27.

  92.
Cornelius, M. D. & Day, N. L. (2009). Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure.
Current Opinion in Neurology
22, 121–25.

  93.
Batstra, L., Hadders-Algra, M. & Neeleman, J. (2003). Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood; prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort.
Early Human Development
75, 21–33.

  94.
Levin, E. D., Wilkerson, A., Jones, J. P., Christopher, N. C. & Briggs, S. J. (1996). Prenatal nicotine effects on memory in rats: Pharmacological and behavioral challenges.
Developmental Brain Research
97, 207–15.

  95.
Slotkin, T. A., Epps, T. A., Stenger, M. L., Sawyer, K. J. & Seidler, F. J. (1999). Cholinergic receptors in heart and brainstem of rats exposed to nicotine during development: Implications for hypoxia tolerance and perinatal mortality.
Brain Research
113, 1–12.

  96.
Huizink, A. C. & Mulder, E.J.H. (2006). Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
30, 24–41.

  97.
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Alton_Harris
.

  98.
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation,
http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Reports_Research/robertHarris.html
.

  99.
Jones, K. L. & Smith, D. W. (1973). Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy.
Lancet
2, 999–1012.

100.
Sampson, P. D., Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Little, R. E., Clarren, S. K., et al. (1997). Incidence of fetal alcohol syndrome and prevalence of alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder.
Teratology
56, 317–26.

101.
Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O’Malley, K. & Young, J. K. (2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects.
Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics
25, 228–38.

102.
Fast, D. K., Conry, J. & Loock, C. A. (1999). Identifying fetal alcohol syndrome among youth in the criminal justice system.
Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics
20, 370–72.

103.
Sowell, E. R., Johnson, A., Kan, E., Lu, L. H., Van Horn, J. D., et al. (2008). Mapping white matter integrity and neurobehavioral correlates in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
Journal of Neuroscience
28, 1313–19.

104.
Connor, P. D., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M. & Streissguth, A. P. (2000). Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function.
Developmental Neuropsychology
18, 331–54.

105.
Batstra, L., et al., Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood.

106.
Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K. & Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion
SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome.
Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
41, 652–59.

107.
Sood, B., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., et al. (2001). Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years, vol. I, Dose–response effect.
Pediatrics
108. doi:10.1542/ peds.108.

108.
Qiang, M., Wang, M. W. & Elberger, A. J. (2002). Second trimester prenatal alcohol exposure alters development of rat corpus callosum.
Neurotoxicology and Teratology
6, 719–32.

7. A RECIPE FOR VIOLENCE

    1.
Van der Zee, H. A. (1998).
The Hunger Winter: Occupied Holland 1944–1945
. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    2.
Stein, Z. (1975).
Famine and Human Development: The Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944–1945
. New York: Oxford University Press.

    3.
Dutch Famine of 1944:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944
.

    4.
The examining physicians diagnosed antisocial personality disorder using the sixth edition of the
International Classification of Diseases
, and these diagnoses would be very similar to those used today in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders.

    5.
Neugebauer, R., Hoek, H. W. & Susser, E. (1999). Prenatal exposure to wartime famine and development of antisocial personality disorder in early adulthood.
Journal of the American Medical Association
4, 479–81.

    6.
Wong, D. L. & Hess, C. S. (2000).
Clinical Manual of Pediatric Nursing.
St. Louis: Mosby.

    7.
Subotzky, E. F., Heese, H. D., Sive, A. A., Dempster, W. S., Sacks, R., et al. (1992). Plasma zinc, copper, selenium, ferritin and whole blood manganese concentrations in children with kwashiorkor in the acute stage and during refeeding.
Annals of Tropical Paediatrics
12, 13–22.

    8.
Friedman, M. & Orraca-Tetteh, R. (1978). Hair as an index of protein malnutrition.
Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology
105, 131–54.

    9.
Spencer, L. V. & Callen, J. P. (1987). Hair loss in systemic disease.
Dermatologic Clinics
5, 565–70.

  10.
Liu, J. H., Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (2004). Malnutrition at age 3 years and externalizing behavior problems at ages 8, 11 and 17 years.
American Journal of Psychiatry
161, 2005–13.

  11.
Shankar, N., Tandon, O. P., Bandhu, R., Madan, N. & Gomber, S. (2000). Brainstem auditory evoked potential responses in iron-deficient anemic children.
Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
44, 297–303.

  12.
Los Monteros, A. E., Korsak, R. A., Tran, T., Vu, D., de Vellis, J., et al.
(2000). Dietary iron and the integrity of the developing rat brain: A study with the artificially-reared rat pup.
Cellular and Molecular Biology
46, 501–15.

  13.
Bruner, A. B., Joffe, A., Duggan, A. K., Casella, J. F. & Brandt, J. (1996). Randomised study of cognitive effects of iron supplementation in non-anaemic iron-deficient adolescent girls.
Lancet
348, 992–96; van Stuijvenberg, M. E., Kvalsvig, J. D., Faber, M., Kruger, M., Kenoyer, D. G., et al. (1999). Effect of iron-, iodine-, and beta-carotene-fortified biscuits on the micronutrient status of primary school children: A randomized controlled trial.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
69, 497–503.

  14.
Fishman, S. M., Christian, P. & West, K. P. (2000). The role of vitamins in the prevention and control of anaemia.
Public Health Nutrition
3, 125–50.

  15.
Liu, J., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Malnutrition at age 3 years and lower cognitive ability at age 11: Independence from social adversity.
Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine
157, 593–600.

  16.
LaFree, G. (1999). A summary and review of cross-national comparative studies of homicide. In M. D. Smith & M. A. Zahn (eds.),
Homicide: A Sourcebook of Social Research
, pp. 125–45. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

  17.
Hibbeln, J. R. (2001). Homicide mortality rates and seafood consumption: A cross-national analysis.
World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics
88, 41–46. Due to space limitations the figure in the text provides data from twenty-one of the twenty-six countries that Hibbeln reported on, but it retains outliers to appropriately represent the relationship that Hibbeln documented.

  18.
Hibbeln, J. R., Davis, J. M., Steer, C., Emmett, P., Rogers, I., et al. (2007). Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): An observational cohort study.
Lancet
369, 578–85.

  19.
Iribarren, C., Markovitz, J. H., Jacobs, D. R., Schreiner, P. J., Daviglus, M., et al. (2004). Dietary intake of n-3, n-6 fatty acids and fish: Relationship with hostility in young adults—the CARDIA study.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
58, 24–31.

  20.
Stevens, L. J., Zentall, S. S., Abate, M. L., Kuczek, T. & Burgess, J. R. (1996). Omega-3 fatty acids in boys with behavior, learning, and health problems.
Physiology and Behavior
59, 915–20.

  21.
Buydens-Branchey, L., Branchey, M., McMakin, D. L. & Hibbeln, J. R. (2003). Polyunsaturated fatty acid status and aggression in cocaine addicts.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
71, 319–23.

  22.
Re, S., Zanoletti, M. & Emanuele, E. (2007). Aggressive dogs are characterized by low omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status.
Veterinary Research Communications
32, 225–30.

  23.
McNamara, R. K. & Carlson, S. E. (2006). Role of omega-3 fatty acids in brain development and function: Potential implications for the pathogenesis and prevention of psychopathology.
Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids
75, 329–49.

  24.
Kitajka, K., Sinclair, A. J., Weisinger, R. S., Weisinger, H. S., Mathai, M., et al. (2004). Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain gene expression.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
101 (10) 931–36.

  25.
Das, U. N. (2003). Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the growth and development of the brain and memory.
Nutrition
19, 62–65.

  26.
Stevens, L., Zhang, W., Peck, L., Kuczek, T., Grevstad, N., et al. (2003). EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors.
Lipids
38, 1007–21.

  27.
Health Statistics: Obesity.
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_obe-health-obesity
.

  28.
Protein deficiency is more of a problem in developing countries, but even in developed countries protein deficiency can be an issue in poor areas. Protein provides essential amino acids for the rapid growth of fetal tissue and plays an important role in the antioxidant system.

  29.
World Health Organization (2001). Iron deficiency anaemia: Assessment, prevention and control.
A Guide for Program Managers
. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO).

  30.
Takeda, A., Tamano, H., Kan, F., Hanajima, T., Yamada, K., et al. (2008). Enhancement of social isolation-induced aggressive behavior of young mice by zinc deficiency.
Life Sciences
82, 909–14.

  31.
Halas, E. S., Reynolds, G. M. & Sandstead, H. H. (1977). Intra-uterine nutrition and its effects on aggression.
Physiology & Behavior
19, 653–61.

  32.
Walsh, W. J., Isaacson, R., Rehman, F. & Hall, A. (1997). Elevated blood copper/zinc ratios in assaultive young males.
Physiology & Behavior
62, 327–29. In this study zinc levels were low and copper levels were high. Copper is elevated because when zinc is low, there is more bioavailability for copper.

  33.
Tokdemir, M., Plota, S. A., Acik, Y., Gursu, F. & Cikim, G. (2003). Blood zinc and copper concentration in criminal and noncriminal schizophrenic men.
Archives of Andrology
49, 365–68.

  34.
Werbach, M. R. (1992). Nutritional influences on aggressive behavior.
Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine
7, 45–51.

  35.
Rosen, G. M., Deinard, A. S., Schwartz, S., Smith, C., Stephenson, B., et al. (1985): Iron deficiency among incarcerated juvenile delinquents.
Journal of Adolescent Health Care
6, 419–23.

  36.
Lozoff, B., Clark, K. M., Jing, Y., Armony-Sivan, R. & Jacobsen, S. W. (2008). Dose-response relationships between iron deficiency with or without
anemia and infant social-emotional behavior.
Journal of Pediatrics
152, 696–702.

  37.
McBurnett, K., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Kumar, A. M., et al. (2005). Mood and hormone responses to psychological challenge in adolescent males with conduct problems.
Biological Psychiatry
57, 1109–16.

  38.
Bennis-Taleb, N., Remacle, C., Hoet, J. J. & Reusens, B. (1999). A low-protein isocaloric diet during gestation affects brain development and alters permanently cerebral cortex blood vessels in rat offspring.
Journal of Nutrition
129, 1613–19.

  39.
Takeda, A. (2000). Movement of zinc and its functional significance in the brain.
Brain Research Reviews
34, 137–48.

  40.
Newman, J. P. & Kosson, D. S. (1986). Passive avoidance learning in psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
95, 252–56.

  41.
Pfeiffer, C. C. & Braverman, E. R. (1982). Zinc, the brain and behavior.
Biological Psychiatry
17, 513–32.

  42.
Arnold, L. E., Pinkham, S. M. & Votolato, N. (2000). Does zinc moderate essential fatty acid and amphetamine treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology
10, 111–17.

  43.
King, J. C. (2000). Determinants of maternal zinc status during pregnancy.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
71, 1334–43.

  44.
Shea-Moore, M. M., Thomas, O. P. & Mench, J. A. (1996). Decreases in aggression in tryptophan-supplemented broiler breeder males are not due to increases in blood niacin levels.
Poultry Science
75, 370–74.

  45.
In many laboratories the 100-gram drink that depletes tryptophan contains a mix of fifteen amino acids, none of which are tryptophan. This increases protein synthesis in the liver, which reduces tryptophan in the plasma. In addition, these amino acids compete with tryptophan for transportation across the blood-brain barrier. Essentially, what tryptophan the participants have available to them is swamped out by the other amino acids. The placebo drink is exactly the same except that the drink is balanced with the appropriate amount of tryptophan.

  46.
Bond, A. J., Wingrove, J. & Critchlow, D. G. (2001). Tryptophan depletion increases aggression in women during the premenstrual phase.
Psychopharmacology
156, 477–80; Bjork, J. M., Dougherty, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Cherek, D. R. & Swann, A. C. (1999). The effects of tryptophan depletion and loading on laboratory aggression in men: Time course and a food-restricted control.
Psychopharmacology
142, 24–30.

  47.
Cherek, D. R., Lane, S. D., Pietras, C. J. & Steinberg, J. L. (2002). Effects of chronic paroxetine administration on measures of aggressive and impulsive
responses of adult males with a history of conduct disorder.
Psychopharmacologia
159, 266–74.

  48.
Rubia, K., Lee, F., Cleare, A. J., Tunstall, N., Fu, C.H.Y., et al. (2005). Tryptophan depletion reduces right inferior prefrontal activation during response inhibition in fast, event-related fMRI.
Psychopharmacology
179, 791–803.

  49.
Ledbetter, L. (1979). San Francisco Tense as Violence Follows Murder Trial.
New York Times
, May 23, A1, A18.

  50.
White Night Riots:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots
.

  51.
Turner, W. (1979). Ex-official guilty of manslaughter in slayings on coast; 3,000 protest.
New York Times
, May 22, A1, D17.

  52.
White Night Riots:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots
.

  53.
Schoenthaler, S. J. (1982). The effect of sugar on the treatment and control of anti-social behavior: A double-blind study of an incarcerated juvenile population.
International Journal of Biosocial Research
3, 1–9.

  54.
Venables, P. H. & Raine, A. (1987). Biological theory. In B. McGurk, D. Thornton & M. Williams (eds.),
Applying Psychology to Imprisonment: Theory and Practice
, pp. 3–28. London: HMSO.

  55.
Pelto, P. (1967). Psychological anthropology. In A. Beals & B. Stegel (eds.),
Biennial Review of Anthropology
, pp. 151–55. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.

  56.
Bolton, R. (1973). Aggression and hypoglycemia among the Quolla: A study in psycho-biological anthropology.
Ethology
12, 227–57.

  57.
Bolton, R. (1979). Hostility in fantasy: A further test of the hypoglycaemia-aggression hypothesis.
Aggressive Behavior
2, 257–74.

  58.
For a review of these studies, see Venables & Raine, Biological theory.

  59.
Virkkunen, M., Rissanen, A., Naukkarinen, H., Franssila-Kallunki, A., Linnoila, M., et al. (2007). Energy substrate metabolism among habitually violent alcoholic offenders having antisocial personality disorder.
Psychiatry Research
150, 287–95.

  60.
Virkkunen, M., Rissanen, A., Franssila-Kallunki, A. & Tiihonen, J. (2009). Low non-oxidative glucose metabolism and violent offending: An 8-year prospective follow-up study.
Psychiatry Research
168, 26–31.

  61.
McCrimmon, R. J., Ewing, F.M.E., Frier, B. M. & Deary, I. J. (1999). Anger state during acute insulin-induced hypoglycaemia.
Physiology and Behavior
67, 35–39.

  62.
Moore, S. C., Carter, L. M. & van Goozen, S.H.M. (2009). Confectionery consumption in childhood and adult violence.
British Journal of Psychiatry
195, 366–67.

Other books

Alpha Prince by Vivian Cove
Out of Mind by Catherine Sampson
The Jungle Books by Rudyard Kipling, Alev Lytle Croutier
Bound: The Mastered Series by James, Lorelei
Killer Commute by Marlys Millhiser
Hit and The Marksman by Brian Garfield
Koshi by Annie Nicholas
Defiance by Viola Grace
Johnnie by Dorothy B. Hughes