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140.
Norris,
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141.
Ibid.

142.
Lucas was released after serving only ten years of his twenty-year sentence, apparently due to prison overcrowding.

143.
Norris,
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144.
Hare, R. D. (1999).
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Norris,
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Moir, A. (1996).
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Ibid.

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Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Williams, M. (1990). Relationships between central and autonomic measures of arousal at age 15 years and criminality at age 24 years.
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Bouchard, T. J. (2004). Genetic influence on human psychological traits: A survey.
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Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R., et al. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the northern Finland 1966 birth cohort.
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Liu, J., Raine, A., Wuerker, A., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. (2009). The association of birth complications and externalizing behavior in early adolescents: Direct and mediating effects.
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Neugebauer, R., Hoek, H. W. & Susser, E. (1999). Prenatal exposure to wartime famine and development of antisocial personality disorder in early adulthood.
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Weaver, I.C.G., Meaney, M. J. & Szyf, M. (2006). Maternal care effects on the hippocampal transcriptome and anxiety-mediated behaviors in the offspring that are reversible in adulthood.
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Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O’Malley, K., et al. (2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects.
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Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Cole, R., Robinson, J., Sidora, K., et al. (2004).
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Ibid.

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Venables, P. H. (1978). Psychophysiology and psychometrics.
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Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C., Mellingen, K., Reynolds, C., et al. (2001). Early educational and health enrichment at age 3–5 years is associated with increased autonomic and central nervous system arousal and orienting at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project.
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Ibid.

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Ibid.

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Hugdahl, K. (1995).
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Raine, A., Mellingen, K., Liu, J. H., Venables, P. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years.
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Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.

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Elliott, D. S., Ageton, S., Huizinga, D., Knowles, B. & Canter, R. (1983).
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Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.

  24.
The p value for the difference in court convictions between the children in the enriched group compared with controls was .07, and employed a two-tailed test. We elected to be conservative, but given the a priori prediction that crime would be reduced (and not increased) by the intervention we could have argued for the use of a one-tailed test of significance, and thus the results would have been significant at p < .035.

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Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.

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Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.

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Bradford, J. (1990). The antiandrogen and hormonal treatment of sex offenders. In W. Marshall, D. Laws & H. Barbaree (eds.),
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Berlin, F. S. (2005). Commentary: The impact of surgical castration on sexual recidivism risk among civilly committed sexual offenders.
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Lösel, F. & Schmucker, M. (2005). The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: A comprehensive meta-analysis.
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Jensen, P. S., Youngstrom, E. A., Steiner, H., Findling, R. L., Meyer, R. E., et al. (2007). Consensus report on impulsive aggression as a symptom across diagnostic categories in child psychiatry: Implications for medication studies.
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Pappadopulos, E., Woolston, S., Chait, A., Perkins, M., Connor, D. F. & Jensen, P. S. (2006). Pharmacotherapy of aggression in children and adolescents: Efficacy and effect size.
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The effect size quoted here for pharmacological treatment effects are Cohen’s
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  50.
“Atypical antipsychotics” is the more formal term used to describe “newer generation” antipsychotics. While originally developed for the treatment of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar depression, over the past fifteen years they have been increasingly used to treat childhood aggression. Examples of atypicals would be risperidone and olanzapine. Their advantage, relative to their efficacy, is that atypical antipsychotics do not have the more severe side effects of more traditional antipsychotic medications such as tardive dyskinesia. Nevertheless they do have some side effects, including weight gain.

  51.
Effect sizes reported in this review of psychopharmacology of aggression are Cohen’s
d
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