The Anatomy of Violence (70 page)

136.
Lawrence, E. J., Shaw, P., Giampietro, V., Surguladze, S., Brammer, M. J., et al. (2006). The role of “shared representations” in social perception and empathy: An fMRI study.
NeuroImage
29, 1173–84.

137.
Damasio,
Descartes’ Error
.

138.
Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis:
A neural theory of economic decision.
Games and Economic Behavior
52, 336–72.

139.
Decety, J. & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporo-parietal junction in social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition.
The Neuroscientist
13, 580–93.

140.
Hedden, T. & Gabrieli, J.D.E. (2010). Shared and selective neural correlates of inhibition, facilitation, and shifting processes during executive control.
NeuroImage
51, 421–31.

141.
Decety & Lamm, The role of the right temporo-parietal junction in social interaction.

    1.
Jonnes, B. (1992).
Voices from an Evil God
, pp. 38–39. London: Blake.

    2.
It should be noted that while Sutcliffe believed his victims were prostitutes, not all of them were, including one of his first attacks.

    3.
This is not to say that we don’t sorely need more good studies on the basic scientific question of what the genetic and biological correlates of violence are. There are many more questions to be answered on the neurobiology of violence. Nevertheless, we need to move away from the unproductive debates over whether there is a biological basis to violence. We need to take what knowledge we have and begin to understand the early factors in infancy, childhood, and adolescence that give rise to these biological risk factors.

    4.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States is a government agency that focuses on health promotion and disease prevention. It is one of the main components of the Department of Health and Human Services in the United States:
http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/index.html
.

    5.
Dahlberg, L. L. & Krug, E. G. (2002). Violence, a global public health problem. In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi & R. Lozano (eds.),
World Report on Violence and Health
, pp. 3–21. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    6.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The cost of violence in the United States.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/CostOfViolence.htm
. See also Corso, P. S., Mercy, J. A., Simon, T. R., Finkelstein, E. A. & Miller, T. R. (2007). Medical costs and productivity losses due to interpersonal and self-directed violence in the United States.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
32, 474–82.

    7.
Corso et al., Medical costs and productivity losses.

    8.
Miller, T. R. & Cohen, M. A. (1997). Costs of gunshot and cut/stab wounds in the United States, with some Canadian comparisons.
Accident Analysis and Prevention
29, 329–41.

    9.
World Health Organization (2004). Seventh World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion, June 6–9, Vienna, Austria. See
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/9312.php
.

  10.
John Shepherd’s achievements are truly significant in the field of crime prevention—they earned him the Stockholm Prize for Criminology in 2008.

  11.
Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years.
Archives of General Psychiatry
51, 984–88. Sarnoff Mednick, at the University of Southern California, should be credited with originally setting up this innovative study in 1969—it became one of many collaborative research works we had together.

  12.
Preeclampsia is hypertension that leads to hypoxia—a relative lack of oxygen, which damages the brain, especially the hippocampus, a control area for aggression.

  13.
While it may seem surprising, arrests are actually better assessments of who is a violent offender than convictions. About 90 percent of arrests never end up with a criminal conviction. Plea-bargaining results in many offenders’ never coming to court. If we relied on conviction data, many truly violent offenders would be misclassified as “nonviolent” and placed in the control group. Even with arrests, we are really getting at the tip of the iceberg, as many violent offenders are never detected. Yet at least with the “softer” criterion of arrest, we can capture in our analyses more of the truly violent offenders than conviction data yields.

  14.
The fact that the group with both birth complications and maternal rejection accounts for 18 percent of all crimes committed by the entire population highlights the influence of these risk factors in predisposing individuals to crime, but also cautions that we cannot attribute all violence to these processes. Clearly, many other factors are responsible for the remaining 82 percent of the variance in violence.

  15.
Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Interaction between birth complications and early maternal rejection in predisposing individuals to adult violence: Specificity to serious, early-onset violence.
American Journal of Psychiatry
154, 1265–71.

  16.
The reason not wanting the pregnancy did not interact with birth complications in predisposing individuals to adult violence may be that some mothers who initially do not want the pregnancy end up changing their minds, and go on to become affectionate, caring mothers.

  17.
Piquero, A. & Tibbetts, S. G. (1999). The impact of pre/perinatal disturbances and disadvantaged familial environment in predicting criminal offending.
Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention
8, 52–70.

  18.
Technically speaking, regression analyses are used to uncover the interaction
effects found in studies of birth complications and negative home environments. Breaking down the sample into four groups is used to help illustrate the nature and direction of the interaction effects.

  19.
Hodgins, S., Kratzer, L. & McNeil, T. F. (2001). Obstetric complications, parenting, and risk of criminal behavior.
Archives of General Psychiatry
58, 746–52.

  20.
Arsenault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B. & Saucier, J. F. (2002). Obstetrical complications and violent delinquency: Testing two developmental pathways.
Child Development
73, 496–508.

  21.
Unlike the other studies, in which more direct measures of family adversity were employed, being an only child is not obviously an indicator of psychosocial adversity, and the meaning of this interaction requires further elucidation.

  22.
Kemppainen, L., Jokelainen, J., Jaervelin, M. R., Isohanni, M. & Raesaenen, P. (2001). The one-child family and violent criminality: A 31-year follow-up study of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort.
American Journal of Psychiatry
158, 960–62.

  23.
Werner, E. E., Bierman, J. M. & French, F. E. (1971).
The Children of Kauai: A Longitudinal Study from the Prenatal Period to Age Ten
. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

  24.
Beck, J. E. & Shaw, D. S. (2005). The influence of perinatal complications and environmental adversity on boys’ antisocial behavior.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
46, 35–46.

  25.
Although the birth complication–adverse home environment interaction effects have been replicated in several countries, a study from Germany found that perinatal insult did not interact with family adversity. This may be because the sample size was small (N=322), limiting the power to detect the interaction. Alternatively, whereas in other studies the outcome was adult offending, in this study the outcome was restricted to antisocial behavior at age eight. Neurological deficits stemming from birth complications may particularly influence the more severe outcome of life-course-persistent antisocial behavior rather than the more common outcome of child antisocial behavior.

  26.
Raine, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., et al. (2005). Neurocognitive impairments in boys on the life-course persistent antisocial path.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
114, 38–49.

  27.
Beaver, K. M. & Wright, J. P. (2005). Evaluating the effects of birth complications on low self-control in a sample of twins.
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
49, 450–71.

  28.
Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography.
Biological Psychiatry
42, 495–508; Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., et al. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus.
Behavioural Brain Research
118, 187–93.

  29.
Liu, J. H., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2004). Malnutrition at age 3 years and externalizing behavior problems at ages 8, 11 and 17 years.
American Journal of Psychiatry
161, 2005–13.

  30.
Liu, J. H., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Malnutrition at age 3 years and lower cognitive ability at age 11 years—Independence from psychosocial adversity.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine
157, 593–600.

  31.
For reviews see Raine, A. (1993).
The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder
. San Diego: Academic Press. And also Marsman, R., Rosmalen, J.G.M., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J. & Buitelaar, J. K. (2009). Does HPA-axis activity mediate the relationship between obstetric complications and externalizing behavior problems? The TRAILS study.
European Child Adolescent Psychiatry
18, 565–73.

  32.
Batstra, L., Hadders-Algra, M., Ormel, J. & Neeleman, J. (2004). Obstetric optimality and emotional problems and substance use in young adulthood.
Early Human Development
80, 91–101; Marsman et al., Does HPA-axis activity mediate the relationship between obstetric complications and externalizing behavior problems?

  33.
Wagner, A. I., Schmidt, N. L., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Leavitt, L. A. & Goldsmith, H. H. (2009). The limited effects of obstetrical and neonatal complications on conduct and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in Middle Childhood.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics
30, 217–25.

  34.
Schwartz, J. (1999).
Cassandra’s Daughter: A History of Psychoanalysis
, p. 225. New York: Viking/Allen Lane.

  35.
Bowlby, J. (1946).
Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-life.
London: Tindall and Cox.

  36.
Rutter, M. (1982).
Maternal Deprivation Reassessed
, 2nd ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

  37.
Stanford, M. S., Houston, R. J. & Baldridge, R. M. (2008). Comparison of impulsive and premeditated perpetrators of intimate partner violence.
Behavioral Sciences and the Law
26, 709–22.

  38.
Genesis 4:10–12.

  39.
Abel, E. L. (1983).
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
. New York: Plenum.

  40.
Ibid.

  41.
Waldrop, M. F., Bell, R. Q., McLaughlin, B. & Halverson, C. F. (1978). Newborn minor physical anomalies predict attention span, peer aggression, and impulsivity at age 3.
Science
199, 563–65.

  42.
Paulus, D. L. & Martin, C. L. (1986). Predicting adult temperament from minor physical anomalies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
50, 1235–39.

  43.
Halverson, C. F. & Victor, J. B. (1976). Minor physical anomalies and problem behavior in elementary schoolchildren.
Child Development
47, 281–85.

  44.
Arseneault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B., Seguin, J. R. & Saucier, J. F. (2000). Minor physical anomalies and family adversity as risk factors for violent delinquency in adolescence.
American Journal of Psychiatry
157, 917–23.

  45.
Pine, D. S., Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I. S. & Davies, M. (1997). Minor physical anomalies: Modifiers of environmental risks for psychiatric impairment?
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
36, 395–403.

  46.
Mednick, S. A. & Kandel, E. S. (1988). Congenital determinants of violence.
Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law
16, 101–9.

  47.
Although both hands show the dimorphism, it is stronger on the right hand than the left hand, and in general the correlation between psychological traits and finger-digit ratios are stronger for the right hand than the left hand.

  48.
The specific genes in question are HoxA and HoxD.

  49.
Kondo, T., Zakany, J., Innis, J. W. & Duboule, D. (1997). Of fingers, toes, and penises.
Nature
390, 29.

  50.
Low estrogen exposure due to diminished placental production could also be a factor in the development of shorter finger-length ratios.

  51.
For ease of understanding, I will use the term “longer ring finger” to describe findings that go in the male direction. Bear in mind, however, that we are talking about the ring finger
relative
to the index finger, not the absolute length of the ring finger. In the research literature, scientists discuss ratios: they divide the length of the index finger by the length of the ring finger. Because men have a bigger denominator (ring finger) in this calculation, men are reported as having “smaller second-to-fourth digit ratios” compared with women—meaning a bigger ring-finger length compared with the index finger.

  52.
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by a deficiency in 21-hydroxylase, which converts progesterone into corticoids; the excess of progesterone results in high concentrations of adrenal androgens.

  53.
Brown, W. M., Hines, M., Fane, B. A. & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Hormones and Behavior
42, 380–86.

  54.
Manning, J. T., Trivers, R. L., Singh, D. & Thornhill, R. (1999). The mystery of female beauty.
Nature
399, 214–15.

  55.
It is known that prenatal androgens in particular influence digit ratios
because this digit ratio is relatively stable after birth, and is not influenced by pubertal testosterone exposure.

  56.
Pokrywka, L., Rachon, D., Suchecka-Rachon, K. & Bitel, L. (2005). The second to fourth digit ratio in elite and non-elite female athletes.
American Journal of Human Biology
17, 796–800.

  57.
The musicians who were high ranking also had lower digit ratios than low-ranking musicians—see Sluming, V. A. & Manning, J. T. (2000). Second to fourth digit ratio in elite musicians: Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male fitness.
Evolution and Human Behavior
21, 1–9.