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77 The measurements for my study were based on the definitions of Howells and Brothwell (see note 68 above). It is highly probable that Nicolucci’s method of measurement for at least some of these measurements differed substantially from these definitions. 78 Such as the vertical index (INDVER), the alveolar index (INDALV), the nasal index (INDNAS), the orbital index (INDORB) and the cephalic index (CEFI). 79 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 87.
80 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 84.
81 Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 141.
82 D’Amore
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83 W.M. Krogman,
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84 D’Amore
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85 D’Amore
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86 For example Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 59–60; Ferembach
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88 St Hoyme and Iscan, 1989, op. cit., 70.
89 S.J. Gould,
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90 D’Amore
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91 D’Amore
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92 K.M. Weiss, ‘On the systematic bias in skeletal sexing,’
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93 D’Amore
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94 D’Amore
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95 The ratio of males to females from examination of the pelvis was 103 : 83, the mandible, 63 : 48 and the skull, 148 : 187. M. Henneberg, and R.J. Henneberg, ‘Reconstructing medical knowledge in ancient Pompeii from the hard evidence of bones and teeth (Presented at a conference at Deutsches Museum, Munich 21–22 March 2000)’,in
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96 S.C. Bisel, ‘The human skeletons of Herculaneum’,
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97 L. Capasso,
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’
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98 P.P. Petrone
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99 St Hoyme and Iscan, 1989, op. cit.
100 St Hoyme and Iscan, 1989, op. cit., 53–54.

1 For issues associated with the relationship between biological and chronological age, see A. Kemkes-Grottenthaler, ‘Aging through the ages: Historical perspectives on age indicator methods’,in
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2 H.M. Liversidge, ‘Accuracy of age estimation from developing teeth of a population of known age (0–5.4 years)’,
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3 D.R. Brothwell,
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4 Kemkes-Grottenthaler, 2002, op. cit., 58 –66. Also, the lack of survival of certain skeletal elements, like ribs, meant that many well established ageing techniques could not be employed.
5 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 64–72; Kemkes-Grottenthaler, 2002, op. cit., 57–58; Krogman and Iscan, 1986, op. cit., 129–30, 146–69; P. Shipman
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6 Kemkes-Grottenthaler, 2002, op. cit., 58–60, 62, 65–66; Krogman and Iscan, 1986, op. cit., 95, 97; C.O. Lovejoy
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7 J. Ahlqvist, and D. Damsten, ‘A modification of Kerley’s method for the microscopic determination of age in human bone’,
Journal of Forensic Sciences
, Vol. 14, 1969, 205–12; Chamberlain, 2006, op. cit., 111–12; M.Y. El-Najjar, and K.R. McWilliams,
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. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1978, 70–72; G. Gustafson,
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8 J.G. Clement (Victorian Institute of Forensic Pathology, Melbourne) to E. Lazer, 1994, personal communication.
9 M.Y. Iscan and S.R. Loth,‘Osteological manifestations of age in the adult’,in
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11 S. Brooks and J.M. Suchey, ‘Skeletal age determination based on the
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12 Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994, op. cit., 9; Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 172–73. 13 White, 1991, op. cit., 309.
14 Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 173–74.
15 W.M. Bass,
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16 Ubelaker, 1989, op. cit., 69, 71, Table 14.
17 Scheuer and Black, 2004, op. cit., 330–31.
18 Chamberlain, 2006, op. cit., 106; D.G. Steele and C.A. Bramblett,
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’,
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20 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 43, 45; J. Comas,
Manual of Physical Anthropology
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21 Meindl and Lovejoy, 1985, op. cit., 65; for details of the techniques used in this study, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 178–79.
22 121 skulls could be scored for Ectsut B, as compared to 111 for Ectsut A. 23 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 65; Krogman and Iscan, 1986, op. cit., 466–67; Scheuer and Black, 2004, op. cit., 111. For scoring techniques used in this study, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 180 24 Scheuer and Black, 2004, op. cit., 7, 77. For the scoring scheme used in this study, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 180.
25 Krogman and Iscan, 1986, op. cit., 124. For the scoring scheme used in this study, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 180.
26 Three principal components were identified, the first being dominated by the two ectocranial suture scores, the second by the frontal sinuses and basilar fusion and the third by Pacchionian depressions. It should be noted that the first component only accounted for 59 per cent of the variance, the second about 18 per cent and the third about 9 per cent. Removal of the frontal sinuses from the analysis doubled the size of the sample. Three principal components were still generated, the first now dominated by the endocranial and ectocranial suture closure scores, the second by basilar fusion and the third by the Pacchionian depressions. Outliers could be identified when the first two factors were plotted against each other. It is notable that they were all identified as juveniles by their lack of basilar fusion. Also, notable from inspection of the scattergram is the degree of correlation between the first two factors. No clear correlation can be observed from inspection of the scattergram generated by plotting factors one and three. This is because Pacchionian depressions appear to be distributed throughout the sample and do not appear to be specifically age related. When basilar fusion was removed as well, the number of cases increased to 113 and only two principal components were generated. The majority of the variance of the first principal component was explained by endocranial and ectocranial suture closure. Pacchionian depressions accounted for most of the variance of the second principal component. 27 For the scoring scheme used in this study, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 181. 28 Mays, 1998, op. cit., 57; D.R. Williams, and C.M. Woodhead, ‘Attrition: A contemporary dental viewpoint’,in
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29 T. Anderson, ‘An Anglo-Saxon case of hyperostosis frontalis interna’,
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31 B.T. Arriaza
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33 Molleson, 1981, op. cit., 21; A. Scobie, ‘Slums, sanitation, and mortality in the Roman world’,
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34 Anderson, 1993, op. cit., 254.
35 Chamberlain, 2006, op. cit., 10–11; M.K. Jackes, ‘Paleodemography: Problems and techniques’,in
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36 T.G. Parkin,
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37 Parkin notes that Hippocrates gave an age of 42 years, Cicero (
de Sen
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Orig
. 11.2), 70 and Staseus and the Etruscan
libri fatales
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de Die Nat
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38 Suetonius,
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39 Suetonius, op. cit., Claudius, 45.
40 Suetonius, op. cit., Vespasian, 25.
41 Suetonius, op. cit., Tiberius, 73.
42 Suetonius, op. cit., Galba, 20, 22.
43 Dyson, 1992, op. cit., 181–82; T.G. Parkin,
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46 Pliny the Elder, op. cit., 153–64; Pliny the Younger, op. cit., Epistles 5.6.4–7. 47 Dyson, 1992, op. cit., 182, 293 n. 4; Parkin, 1992, op. cit., 7, 11–12, 18; Parkin, 2003, op. cit., 37–38.
48 Parkin, 1992, op. cit., 14; Parkin, 2003, op. cit., 31–35.
49 Parkin notes that illiteracy and age rounding appear to have been linked. Apparently, age rounding was more prevalent outside the cities, among women and those of lower economic or social status and lower levels of education. Parkin, 2003, op. cit., 32–35. 50 Parkin, 2003, op. cit., 94, 189.
51 Dyson, 1992, op. cit., 15, 17, 19; Parkin, 1992, op. cit., 134; Parkin, 2003, op. cit., 36. 52 L. Capasso and L. Capasso. ‘Mortality in Herculaneum before volcanic eruption in 79
AD
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53 S.C. Bisel, ‘Human bones at Herculaneum’,
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Anthropologie
, Vol. 26, 1988a, 61; S. C. Bisel, ‘The skeletons of Herculaneum, Italy’,in
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–
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54 See for example, J.-P. Bocquet-Appel, and C. Masset. ‘Farewell to paleodemography’,
Journal of Human Evolution
, Vol. 11, 1982, 321–33, J.P. Bocquet-Appel and C. Masset. ‘Paleodemography: Resurrection or Ghost?’,
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55 Chamberlain, 2006, op. cit., 87–132.
56 Chamberlain, 2006, op. cit., 26–32, 88–89.
57 I.B. Cohen,
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60 G. Nicolucci,‘Crania Pompeiana: Descrizione de’ crani umani rinvenuti fra le ruine dell’ antica Pompei’,
Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche
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Antropologia e la Etnologia
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63 D’Amore
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64 Vallois, 1960, op. cit., 187–93.
65 Vallois, 1960, op. cit., 194.
66 Ibid.
67 Krogman, 1962, op. cit., 76–89. Also, see the discussion that followed Vallois’ paper. Vallois, 1960, op. cit., 205–22, especially 212–13.
68 D’Amore
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69 Henneberg and Henneberg, 2002, op. cit., 172.
70 Also E. Lazer, ‘Pompeii
AD
79: A population in flux?’,in
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