Red Fortress: History and Illusion in the Kremlin (72 page)

40
. Batu’s original Sarai was later refounded on a new site closer to contemporary Volgograd; few sources explain which of the two is being described.

41
. Fyodorov-Davydov,
Golden Horde,
p. 220.

42
. Fyodorov-Davydov,
Golden Horde,
p. 16, citing Ibn-Battuta and al-Omari.

43
. A tradition remarked upon by Marco Polo. See Fyodorov-Davydov,
Golden Horde,
pp. 31–2.

44
. For the date when Ivan became Grand Prince, see John Fennell,
The Emergence of Moscow, 1304–1359
(London, 1968), pp. 111–19. On the bell, see
PSRL,
vol. 10, s. 211.

45
. Trinity chronicle, cited in Meyendorff,
Byzantium,
p. 157.

46
. For the boyars, see
PSRL,
vol. 10, s. 208 (referring to the exodus of 1338).

47
. N. S. Borisov, ‘Moskovskie kniaz’ia i russkie mitropolity XIV veka’,
Voprosy istorii,
8 (1986), p. 35.

48
. For a summary, see Martin,
Medieval Russia,
p. 189.

49
. For two discussions, see
Materialy i issledovaniia,
vol. XV, and in particular pp. 44–5 (A. N. Kirpichnikov, ‘Kremli Rossii i ikh izuchenie’) and pp. 60–61 (V. B. Silina, ‘Nazvaniia drevnerusskikh krepostnykh sooruzhenii’).

50
. E. I. Smirnova,
Materialy i issledovaniia,
vol. XIV, p. 34.

51
. On the size of castles elsewhere in Europe, see Robert Bartlett,
The Making of Europe
(London, 1993), especially p. 66.

52
. Nancy Shields Kollmann gives a figure of six families in 1371. See her table in
Kinship and Politics,
p. 76.

53
. Archaeological studies of the Kremlin have added a good deal of new information to the outlines presented by Zabelin (
Istoriia goroda Moskvy
) and his successor, S. P. Bartenev,
Moskovskii kreml’ v starinu i teper’,
2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1912 and 1918). Among the pioneering works, see Rabinovich, ‘O nachal’nom periode’, and also I. L. Buseva-Davydova,
Khramy Moskovskogo Kremlia
(Moscow, 1997).

54
. Buseva-Davydova,
Khramy,
p. 230.

55
. The archaeological evidence for an older building on the same site is presented in N. S. Sheliapina, ‘Arkheologicheskie issledovaniia v uspenskom sobore’,
Materialy i issledovaniia,
vol. I, pp. 54–63.

56
. On this, see D. Ostrowski, ‘Why did the Metropolitan move from Kiev to Vladimir in the thirteenth century?’, in B. Gasparov and O. Raevsky-Hughes, eds.,
Christianity and the Eastern Slavs,
vol. 1 (Berkeley and Oxford, 1993).

57
. For a list of Peter’s political moves, see John Fennell,
A History of the Russian Church to 1448
(London, 1995), p. 135.

58
. Martin,
Medieval Russia,
p. 391; Meyendorff,
Byzantium,
p. 151; Borisov, ‘Moskovskie kniaz’ia’, p. 34. All argue against the view that Peter was merely an ally of Moscow.

59
. Meyendorff,
Byzantium,
p. 150.

60
. Fennell,
Russian Church,
p. 220.

61
. The source was his successor, Kiprian. Cited in G. M. Prokhorov,
Povest’ o Mitiae: Rus’ i Vizantiia v epokhu Kulikovskoi bitvy
(Leningrad, 1978), pp. 310–11.

62
. Again, there is no firm basis for saying that he planned this long in advance. Martin,
Medieval Russia,
p. 391.

63
. Peter’s status was recognized in 1339. Meyendorff,
Byzantium,
p. 156.

64
. For a history of this building while it was extant, see I. Snegirev,
Spas na Boru v Moskovskom Kremle
(Moscow, 1865), pp. 1–5.

65
. Borisov, ‘Moskovskie kniaz’ia’, p. 38.

66
. Zabelin,
Istoriia goroda Moskvy,
p. 3; see also Buseva-Davydova,
Khramy,
p. 15 and Miller, ‘Monumental building’, pp. 360–90. Miller (p. 375) suggests that Kalita’s cathedral occupied no more than 226 square metres, compared with 1,183 square metres for Vladimir’s equivalent.

67
. V. P. Vygolov,
Arkhitektura Moskovskoi Rusi serediny XV veka
(Moscow, 1985), p. 42; there is some doubt about the date of the monastery’s original foundation.

68
. Though white stone anywhere in Moscow is often known as Myachkovo stone, after the village where large quantities were later quarried, the lime-stone for Kalita’s churches and Donskoi’s white walls came from the immediate region of Moscow. See S. O. Shmidt, ed.,
Moskva: Entsiklopediia
(Moscow, 1997), p. 111.

69
. On the ‘epic project’ itself, see Miller, ‘Monumental building’, pp. 376–9 and Sergei Bogatyrev,
The Sovereign and His Counsellors: Ritualised Consultations in Muscovite Political Culture
(Helsinki, 2000), pp. 104–5.

70
. See A. A. Gorskii,
Moskva i Orda
(Moscow, 2005), p. 67.

71
. For Donskoi’s flight, see Gorskii,
Moskva,
p. 104.

72
. Zabelin,
Istoriia goroda Moskvy,
pp. 95–6.

73
. Martin,
Medieval Russia,
p. 190.

2 RENAISSANCE

1
. Spiro Kostof,
A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals
(New York, 1985), p. 5.

2
. Geoffrey Parker, ‘The “Military Revolution”, 1560–1660 – a myth?’,
JMH,
48, 2 (June 1976), esp. pp. 203–6.

3
. Nikolai Karamzin, ‘Zapiski o moskovskikh dostopamiatnostiakh’, cited in I. Kondrat’ev,
Sedaia starina Moskvy,
5th edn (Moscow, 2006), p. 34. Kondrat’ev’s commentary includes more prose and poetry along these lines.

4
. The way the Mongols’ influence on Muscovy was framed in the tale was itself the product of what one historian has recently described as the church’s ‘full-blown anti-Tatar ideology’. See D. G. Ostrowski,
Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier
(Cambridge, 1998), pp. 139–40.

5
. The most famous are by N. S. Shustov (1862) and Aleksei Kivshenko (1880). For a nationalist reading of Moscow’s ascendancy, see I. E. Zabelin,
Istoriia goroda Moskvy
(Moscow, 1904; repr. 2005), pp. 127–8; for an assessment of the level of tribute paid in this later period, see Michel Roublev, ‘The Mongol tribute’, in M. Cherniavsky, ed.,
The Structure of Russian History
(New York, 1970), pp. 29–64.

6
. Kostof,
History of Architecture,
p. 418.

7
. P. V. Sytin,
Istoriia planirovki i zastroiki Moskvy,
vol. 1 (Moscow, 1950), p. 46.

8
. Sergei Bogatyrev,
The Sovereign and His Counsellors: Ritualised Consultations in Muscovite Political Culture
(Helsinki, 2000), p. 86. The point is also made by Marshall Poe,
The Russian Moment in World History
(Princeton, 2003), p. 36.

9
. For first-hand evidence, see
Travels to Tana and Persia by Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogio Contarini,
trans. W. Thomas et al. (London, 1873), pp. 165–6.

10
. For a discussion, see Bogatyrev,
Sovereign,
p. 17.

11
. Dmitri Obolensky,
The Byzantine Commonwealth
(London, 1971), p. 356.

12
. John Fennell,
Ivan the Great of Moscow
(London, 1961), pp. 35–6.

13
. S. P. Bogoiavlenskii, ed.,
Gosudarstvennaia oruzheinaia palata Moskovskogo kremlia
(Moscow, 1954), p. 511.

14
. Cited in Fennell,
Ivan the Great,
p. 53.

15
. Fennell,
Ivan the Great,
pp. 56–60.

16
. Chester S. L. Dunning,
Russia’s First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty
(University Park, Pa., 2001), p. 39.

17
. For a crisp summary, see Ruslan Skrynnikov,
Krest’ i korona
(St Petersburg, 2000), pp. 114–16.

18
. Timothy Ware,
The Orthodox Church
(London, 1997), pp. 70–71.

19
.
AI,
vol. 1, doc. 39, Vasily Vasilevich to Patriarch Mitrofan, pp. 71–2.

20
.
AI,
vol. 1, docs. 41 and 262, pp. 83 and 492.

21
. See John Fennell,
A History of the Russian Church to 1448
(London, 1995), p. 188.

22
. Russell E. Martin, ‘Gifts for the bride: dowries, diplomacy and marriage politics in Muscovy’,
Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies,
38, 1 (Winter 2008), pp. 123–6; Fennell,
Ivan the Great,
p. 158.

23
. There is a huge literature on this subject. For a summary, see Janet Martin,
Medieval Russia, 980–1584
(Cambridge, 2007), pp. 295–6.

24
. For Feofil, see
AI,
vol. 1, pp. 512–14.

25
. See Michael Cherniavsky, ‘The reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow’,
Church History,
24 (1955), p. 352.

26
.
Istoriia Moskvy v shesti tomakh
(Moscow, 1952), vol. 1, p. 61.

27
. V. I. Snegirev,
Aristotel’ Fioravanti i perestroika moskovskogo kremlia
(Moscow, 1935), p. 66.

28
. For the date of the original church, see A. A. Sukhanova, ‘Podklet Blagovesh-chenskogo sobora Moskovskogo Kremlia po dannym arkhitekturnykh i arkheologicheskikh issledovanii XX veka’,
Materialy i issledovaniia,
vol. XVI, pp. 164–5.