Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (152 page)

219 Several fragments of inscriptions were found in a survey conducted by M. Meryem and A. Durukan in 1997–8. Durukan, A.
et al
.,
The Cultural Heritage in the Towns of Birecik, Halfeti, Suruç, Bozova and Rumkale
, ed. A. Durukan, trans from Turkish A. T. Mitchell, M. Kadiroğlu Leube and A. Durukan (Ankara, 2003), 204–6.

220 Humphreys,
Saladin
, 310.

221 Bar Hebraeus,
Chronography
vol. 1, 435; Thorau
Baybars
, 64; Humphreys,
Saladin
, 348.

222 Ibn
, 133–5; Ibn al-Furāt,
Ta’rīkh
(Lyons), 68; Irwin,
Middle-East
, 46; Amitai-Preiss,
Mongols
, 61.

223 Streck, M., “Biredjik,”
EI
²
1:1233–4; van Berchem, M.,
Arabische Inschiften aus Syrien Mesopotamien und Kleinasien: In Beiträge zur Assyriologie und semitischen Sprachwisssenschaft
(Leipzig, 1909), VII, 1, 102–5.

224 Kürkçüoğlu, Cihat A.,
Birecik Monografis
(Ankara, 1996).

225 The photographs are kept in the Creswell Photographic Archives, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

226 Part of Creswell’s dating relied on inscriptions along the towers and gates, some of which can be seen in the photographs though they were not the main focus of the survey.

227 Ibn al-Furāt,
Ta’rīkh
(Lyons), vol. 2, 68.

228 Ibn Shaddād,
Ta’rīkh
, 358.

229
,
Wafayāt
, vol. 10, 342.

230 Durukan,
Cultural Heritage
, 199.

231 Van Berchem,
AISM
, VII, 1, 101.

232 Ibn
338; Maqrīzī,
Sulūk
, bk. 1, pt. 2, 515–16; Thorau,
Baybars
, 152–3, 196.

233 Rabbat,
Citadel of Cairo
, 134–5.

234 Yūnīnī,
Dhayl
, vol. 3, 114; Ibn Shaddād,
Ta’rīkh
, 124–6; Ibn al-Furāt,
Ta’rīkh
, vol. 7, 41. Although Baybars was residing at Damascus when he received the news (November 1275) of the Mongol attack he did not set out to the fortress.

235 Ibn Shaddād,
Ta’rīkh
, 358;
,
Wafayāt
, vol. 10, 342.

236 Tonghini, C., Donato, E., Montevecchi, N. and Nucciotti, M., “The eolution of masonry technique in Islamic military architecture: the evidence from Shayzar,”
Levant
35 (2003), 179–212. See especially pages 190–3, figs 12, 18, 24.

237 Durukan,
Cultural Heritage
, 197–202.

238 The palace at Karak and at
have the same dimensions, both measuring 40 × 40m.

239 Sinclair,
Eastern Turkey
, vol. 4, 157–8.

240 Creswell’s interpretation is given beside the photographs in the Ashmolean Museum photographic archives, photographs, 6589–90. Sinclair,
Turkey
, vol. 4, 157.

241 Tabba,
Constructions
, 84–92; Brown, “Karak,” 287–304.

242 van Berchem,
AISM
, VII, 1, 102.

243 In 1259 the fortress was taken by Hülegü after a siege that lasted two weeks. The sieges of 1264–5, 1272 and 1274 all failed. A detailed discussion is presented in Chapter 3.

244 Known as Ranculat in the Frankish sources. The Armenians called it Homgla.
al-Rūm is the Arabic version found in contemporary twelfth- and thirteenth-century sources. The modern Turkish name is Rumkale. Stewart, A., “
al-Rūm/Hrmogla/ Rumkale and the Mamluk siege of 691 ah/1291ce,” in
Military Architecture in Greater Syria
, ed. H. Kennedy (Leiden and Boston, 2006), 270–1.

245 Comfort
et al
., “Euphrates,” 113.

246 Bar Hebraeus,
Chronography
, vol. 1, 435.

247 The dam was completed in December 1999. The archaeological survey conducted in the area prior to the flooding included several archaeological teams from various universities around the world; it was named “Project Zeugma” after the classical town of Zeugma. The finds ere published in two main articles that will be referred to in the following pages.

248 Comfort
et al
., “Euphrates,” 113.

249 Der Nersessian, S., “The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia” in
A History of the Crusades
, gen. ed. K. M. Setton,
II: The Later Crusades
(Madison, 1969), 641–2; Boase, “Gazetteer,” 166–7; Sinclair,
Eastern Turkey
, vol. 4, 209–11. MacEvitt, C., “Christian authority in the Latin East: Edessa in Crusader history,” in
The Medieval Crusad
, ed. S. J. Ridyard (Woodbridge, 2004), 71–83; Stewart,
“
,” 271–80.

250 Sinclair,
Eastern Turkey
, vol. 4, 215.

251 Der Nersessian, “Kingdom of Cilician Armenia,” 653; Stewart,
“
,” 272.