Japan's Comfort Women (43 page)

64 A Japanese broadcasting corporation based in Nagoya, Chuky
d
TV, produced a documentary film on the Indonesian comfort women and broadcast it in May 1997.

One of several former Indonesian comfort women who were interviewed in this film testified that she was taken to New Guinea. This film, entitled
Koe Tozasarete Soshite
, was directed by Ms.
i
waki Michiyo.

65 This information is provided in the above-mentioned documentary film, the source of which is the Indonesian government itself.

66 An article in the Indonesian weekly newsmagazine
Tempo
also suggests that there were probably many women who were “professionals” through both periods of the Dutch and Japanese colonial regimes. See Pandir Kelana, “Kisah Kadarwati yang sebenarnya”

in
Tempo
, 25 July 1992.

67 For details of high VD rates among the Dutch forces stationed in the Dutch East Indies before the Pacific War, see John Ingleson, op. cit., pp. 133–136.

Chapter 4: Why did the US forces ignore the comfort women
issue?

1
Amenities in the Japanese Armed Forces
, ATIS Report No. 120 (15 November 1945) pp. 5–20.

2 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 79 “P File,” Box 254, ATIS Bulletin No. 1483; Box 282, ATIS Current Translation No. 100; Box 320, ATIS Interrogation Report No.

25, Serial No. 35: Report No. 30, Serial No. 42A: Report No. 37, Serial No. 55; Box 321, Interrogation Report No. 57, Serial No. 99: Report No. 104, Serial No. 175.

3 USNA Collection, RG 208, Entry 378, Box 446, “United States Office of War Information, Psychological Warfare Team Attached to US Army Forces India–Burma Theater, Japanese Prisoner of War Interrogation Report, No. 49.” Three photos of these Korean women being interrogated by the Nissei members of the Psychological Warfare Team are also held at the US National Archives: their reference numbers are RG 111, SC 267578, 267579, and 267580.

4 USNA Collection, RG 208, Entry 378, Box 446, “South-East Asia Translation and Interrogation Centre, Psychological Warfare, Interrogation Bulletin No. 2.”

Notes

193

5 This information was obtained during my interview with Grant Hirabayashi on March 21, 1996, in McLean, Virginia, USA.

6 Fukuchi Hiroaki, op. cit., p. 19.

7 Hoover Research Institute, Stanford University, Collection, “Report of Military Government Activities for October 1945” and “Report of Military Government Activities for November 1945.”

8 USNA Collection, RG 331, GHQ/SCAP Box 1967.

9 For example, Pe Pongi was one of a few Korean women who stayed in Okinawa after the war and lived there until she died in October 1991. See note 79 to Chapter 2.

10 USNA, RG 111, SE 4443/LA, 4450/LA, 4522/LA, 4523/LA: SC 230147, 230148, 247386: SC 20812. Australian War Memorial (hereafter AWM) Collection, Neg. Nos.

120082, 120083, 120086, 120087.

11 Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, pp. 175–192.

12 USNA Collection, RG 338, XXIV Corps, Box 8039, “Investigation.”

13 See, for example, Tokyo Saiban Handobukku Hensh
e
Iin Kai (ed.)
Tokyo Saiban Handobukku
(Aoki Shoren, Tokyo, 1989) pp. 167–169.

14 See, for example, Cynthia Enloe,
Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women’s
Lives
(Pluto Press, London, 1983) pp. 27–29; and Susan Brownmiller,
Against Our Will:
Men, Women and Rape
(Penguin Books, London, 1991) pp. 92–93.

15 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “Subject: Facilities for venereal prophylaxis for Air Force Ferry Command. Headquarters, Services of Supply, Washington, D.C., SPOM 726.1., To: The Surgeon General” (August 6, 1942).

16 Ibid., “War Department Headquarters, Services of Supply, Washington, D.C., SPOPM

726, Facilities for Venereal Prophylaxis” (August 6, 1942).

17 Ibid., “SPRMP 726.1, Facilities for venereal prophylaxis for Air Force Ferry Command”

(September 19, 1942).

18 Ibid., “War Dept., S.O.S., SPMCE, Washington, D.C.; To: The Assistant Chief of Staff, G–1 ( Through the Commanding General, S.O.S.)” (October 15, 1942).

19 Ibid., “Memorandum for the A.C. of S., G -1, Subject: Conditions in the Africa, Middle East and India-China Theaters” (September 18, 1942).

20 Ibid.

21 For details of “Circular 170”, see USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “SPGAM/250.1, Memorandum for the Chief of Staff, Subject: Revision of Circular No. 170, War Department, August 16, 1941” (December 30, 1942).

22 A reference to the existence of such stations already appears in the memo dated August 19, 1942, which was sent from 1st Lieut. Philip Grenley, Chief of Urology Section, Medical Corps to the Surgeon of Quarry Heights in the Panama Canal Zone. See USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “Subject: Prophylaxis for Venereal Disease-(Gonorrhoea); To: The Surgeon, Panama Canal Department, Quarry Heights, Canal Zone.”

23 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “War Dept., S.O.S., SPMCE, Washington, D.C.; To: Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1.” (September 25, 1942); “Subject: Orders; Thru: The Surgeon General, Washington, D.C.; To: Major William A. Brumfield, Jr, 0226566, MC.”

24 Ibid., “War Dept., S.O.S., SPMCE, Washington, D.C.; To: The Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1” (October 15, 1942).

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid., “Personnel Division, G-1 WDGS, WDGAP 250.1”; “SPGAM/250.1; Memorandum for the Chief of Staff, Subject: Letter to President, International Association of Chiefs of Police.”

27 Ibid., “SPGAM/250.1, Memorandum for the Chief of Staff, Subject: Revision of Circular No. 170, War Department, August 16, 1941” (December 30, 1942).

28 Ibid., “Invocation of the May Act.”

29 Ibid., “M/250.1, Control of Vice in the Area of Army establishments” (April 20, 1943).

194

Notes

30 Ibid.

31 Ibid., “Portland’s Fight for Repression of Prostitution.” (April 3, 1945). A similar problem of organized prostitution at Fort Huachuca in Arizona was also reported.

See, ibid., “Conference on Segregated Prostitution – Fort Huachuca, Arizona – Recom-mend that no further action be taken” ( July 6, 1942).

32 Ibid., “SPGAM/250.1, Memorandum for the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, Subject: Improvement of moral conditions in the vicinity of camps and stations” ( July 6, 1943).

33 Ibid., “Conduct of Troops at Camp Polk, La.” (March 15, 1945).

34 Ibid., “Memorandum for the A.C. of S., G-1, Subject: Medical Conditions in the African–Middle Eastern and India–China Theaters” (October 29, 1942).

35 Ibid., “Subject: Report of Investigation of Venereal Diseases among United States Army Forces in Central Africa, the Middle East, and India; To: Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, War Department, Pentagon Building, Washington, D.C.” (March 2, 1943) pp. 8–10.

36 Ibid., p. 10.

37 Ibid., “Subject: Moral Situation; To: Chief Administrative Services, War Department, Washington, D.C.” (December 18, 1942).

38 Ibid., “Subject: Report of Investigation of Venereal Diseases among United States Army Forces in Central Africa, the Middle East, and India; To: Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, War Department, Pentagon Building, Washington, D.C.” (March 2, 1943) pp. 22–23, 35, 37.

39 Ibid., p. 25.

40 Ibid., p. 25.

41 Ibid., pp. 24–25.

42 Ibid., p. 19.

43 Australian Archives (hereafter AA) Collection, MP763/3, G135,
The Management of
Venereal Diseases in Egypt during the War
by Sir James W. Barrett ( London, 1919) pp. 7–8.

44 AWM Collection, AWM54, 267/6/17, Pt. 6, “The problem of VD in 7 Aust Div During Fifteen Months in the Middle East,” p. 3.

45 Ibid., p. 4.

46 Ibid., pp. 4–6.

47 AWM Collection, AWM54, 267/4/11, “Incidence of VD A.I.F. in the Middle East.”

48 AWM Collection, AWM54, 267/4/12, “Notifiable Diseases: Comparative Rates for 1,000 of Strength.”

49 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “Subject: Report of Investigation of Venereal Diseases among United States Army Forces in Central Africa, the Middle East, and India; To: Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, War Department, Pentagon Building, Washington, D.C.” (March 2, 1943) pp. 12, 28.

50 Ibid., p. 12.

51 AWM Collection, AWM54, 267/4/11, “Incidence of Particular Diseases in A.I.F. in M.E., 1941.”

52 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “Subject: Report of Investigation of Venereal Diseases among United States Army Forces in Central Africa, the Middle East, and India; To: Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, War Department, Pentagon Building, Washington, D.C.” (March 2, 1943) p. 42.

53 Ibid., pp. 1–2.

54 Ibid., “Memorandum for Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel, S.O.S., Subject: Venereal Diseases in Overseas Bases.” (December 5, 1942).

55 Ibid., “Prostitution and Venereal Diseases in Caribbean Bases”; “IG 333.9 – Caribbean Defense Command (B), Memorandum to the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, Subject: Prostitution within the Caribbean area” (April 6, 1943).

56 Ibid., “Prostitution and Venereal Diseases in Caribbean Bases,” pp. 1–2.

57 Ibid., “IG 333.9 – Caribbean Defense Command (B), Memorandum to the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, Subject: Prostitution within the Caribbean area” (April 6, 1943) p. 3.

Notes

195

58 Ibid., p. 2.

59 Ibid., “Venereal Disease Control in Antigua.”

60 Ibid., “Office of the Surgeon, Atkinson Field Air Base, British Guiana” ( July 31, 1942). It is not a phenomenon peculiar to the US forces that many soldiers failed to use condoms although they were provided free of charge. A similar situation existed in the Australian forces during the war. According to one official report, only half the soldiers stationed in a particular part of Australia used condoms when associating with prostitutes. One-third of them used neither condoms nor chemical prophylactic at all. For more details, see AA Collection, MP742/1, 211/6/236, “Venereal Disease Survey in Queensland and L of C Area.”

61 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 43, Box 438, “Letter from Eliot Ness, Director, Division of Social Protection, Community War Services, to Col. H. A. Cooney, G.S.C., Chief, Miscellaneous Branch, G-1 Division, War Department” (October 9, 1943).

62 There are substantial numbers of official documents relevant to V.D. problems amongst the Australian forces as well as civilians during World War II. A detailed analysis of these records would require writing a separate book.

63 AA Collection, MP742/1, 211/6/236, “Venereal Disease Survey in Queensland and L of C Area.”

64 AA Collection, B551/0, 1943/110/4772. “Comb-out of Unemployed Women (Camp Followers) in Townsville Area [Prostitution].”

65 Peter Charlton,
Australia At War: War Against Japan 1942–1945
( Time-Life Books Australia, Sydney, 1989) p. 61.

66 Kay Saunders, “In a Cloud of Lust: Black GIs and Sex in World War II” in Joy Damousi and Marilyn Lake eds.,
Gender and War: Australia at War in the Twentieth Century
(Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1995) pp. 178–190.

67 AA Collection. MP742/1, 65/1/92, “Prime Minister’s Committee on National Morale, re Queensland.”

68 AA Collection, A816, 37/301/199. “Report on Civilian Morale in North Queensland.”

69 USNA Collection, RG 165, Entry 418, Box 465, “Subject: Establishment of Brothels in North African Theater” (November 25, 1943).

70 Ibid., “OPD 250.1, Memorandum for the Chief, Legistlative and Liaison Division, Subject: Establishment of Brothels in the North African Theater of Operation” (December 21, 1943).

71 Ibid., “War Department General Staff, Operation Division, Washington; Memorandum for General Hull” (November 28, 1943).

72 Ibid., “Confidential, War Department Classified Message Center, Incoming Message; From Algiers, No. W 6617” (December 1, 1943); “Confidential, War Department Classified Message Center, Incoming Message; From Cairo, No. AMSME 9923”

(December 7, 1943).

73 Ibid., “Opening Brothel for the Soldiers of the 29th Division in France” (November 3, 1944).

74 Ibid., “WDGAP/250.1; House of Ill-Repute” (February 16, 1945).

75 Ibid., “AGOB-C-A Prostitution, House of Ill-Repute” (February 17, 1945).

76 Ibid., “AG726.1, OB-S-A SPGAM, Subject: Prostitution in Overseas Theaters of Operation” (April 24, 1945).

Chapter 5: Sexual violence committed by the Allied occupation
forces against Japanese women: 1945 –1946

1 For an official account of “Operation Iceberg,” see R. E. Appleman, J. M. Burns, R.

A. Gugeller, and J. Stevens,
United States Army in World War II, The War in the Pacific;
Okinawa: The Last Battle
( Historical Division, Department of the Army, Washington DC, 1948). For a more recent unofficial analysis of this battle, see, for example, G.

Astor,
Operation Iceberg: The Invasion and Conquest of Okinawa in World War II – An Oral
196

Notes

History
(Donald I. Fine, Inc., New York, 1995); R. Leckie,
Okinawa: The Last Battle of
World War II
( Viking, New York, 1995); G. Feifer,
Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and
the Atomic Bomb
(Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1992).

2 Numerous books and memoirs on the battle of Okinawa are available in Japanese, but very few have been translated into English. One interesting Japanese memoir available in English is Colonel H. Yahara,
The Battle for Okinawa: A Japanese Officer’s
Eyewitness Account of the Last Great Campaign of World War II
( John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995). Yahara was the senior staff officer of the 32nd Army in Okinawa.

3 Yamada Akira, “Beigun no J
d
riku” in Fujiwara Akira ed.,
Okinwas-sen: Kokudo ga SenjD

ni natta toki
(Aoki Shoten, Tokyo, 1987) pp. 76–78.

4
i
shiro Masayasu,
Okinawa-sen: MinshE no Me de toraetra SensD
(K
d
bunken, Tokyo, 1994) pp. 172–173.