Japan's Comfort Women (41 page)

55 Ibid., p. 192.

56
JIS
, Document No. 47, pp. 224–233.

57 Cited by Yoshimi Yoshiaki in his book,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 45.

58
JIS
, Document Nos. 48 and 49, pp. 234–247.

59 Ibid., Document No. 60, pp. 273–277.

60 Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 51.

61 Suzuki Yoshio, “Kagaisha no Sh
d
gen: Ianfu kara Minoue-banashi o Kiita” in
Sekai
No. 637 ( Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, July 1997) pp. 120–121.

62 This estimate is based upon a report that the Kuwantung Army of 800,000 men planned to mobilize 20,000 Korean comfort women during the so-called “Kuwantung Army Special Maneuvres” in July 1941.

63 For details of Japan’s eugenic policy during the Asia-Pacific War, see Matsunaga Ei, “Nippon no Y
e
sei Seisaku: Nachisu Doitsu to no Hikaku”; and Yonemoto Sh
d
hei, “Y
e
seigaku: Nippon to Doitsu to no Hikaku” in Kanagawa University ed.,
Igaku to
SensD
(Ochanomizu Shob
d
, Tokyo, 1994) pp. 24–43, 137–154.

64 Wakakuwa Midori,
SensD ga Tsukuru Josei-zD
(Chikuma Shob
d
, Tokyo, 1995) pp. 66–67.

Chapter 2: Procurement of comfort women and their lives as
sexual slaves

1 For details of the history of Korea and Japan’s intervention in Korean affairs between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see, for example, Peter Duus,
The
Abacus and the Sword: the Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910
( University of California Press, Berkeley, 1995) Part One; and Bruce Cumings,
Korea’s Place in the Sun: a Modern
History
(W. W. Norton, New York, 1997) Chapter 2.

2 Recently, some Korean and Japanese historians have cast doubt on the legality of the Second as well as the Third Japan–Korea Conventions in the light of the contemporary international law. For details of their arguments see Unno Fukuju ed.,
Nikkan
JDyaku to Kankoku HBgD: ChDsen Shokuminchi Shihai no GDhDsei o Tou
(Akashi Shoten, Tokyo, 1995). In fact, even by 1906, a French professor of international law, Francis Rey, had pointed out the illegality of the “Second Convention” in his article “La Situation 186

Notes

Internationaie de la Coree”, published in
Revue Generale de Droit International Public
, Vol. 13.

3 For details of the Japanese colonial administration in Korea, see, for example, Unno Fukuju,
Nippon no Rekishi, Vol. 13: Nisshin, Nichiro SensD
(Sh
e
eisha, Tokyo, 1992) Chapter 8.

4 P. Duss, op. cit., pp. 364–396; B. Cumings, op. cit., pp. 148–152.

5 Higuchi Y
e
ichi, “Senjika no Ch
d
sen N
d
min: Rison o Ch
e
shin ni” in
Kikan SensD

Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 7, 1995, pp. 55–63; Yun Myeongsuk, “Nicch
e
Sens
d
-ki ni okeru Ch
d
senjin Guntai Ianfu no Keisei” in
ChDsen-shi KenkyEkai Rombun-shE
, No. 32, 1994, pp. 91–93.

6 For details of this massacre of Korean residents in Japan shortly after the Great Kant
d
Earthquake, see Kan Tokuso and Kum Byondon eds,
Gendaishi ShiryD Vol. 6: KantD

Daishinsai to ChDsenjin
(Misuzu Shob
d
, Tokyo, 1963).

7 Ajia Minsh
e
H
d
tei Jumbi-kai ed.,
Shashin Zusetsu: Nippon no Shinryaku
(
i
tsuki Shoten, Tokyo, 1992) pp. 80–82. For details of the history of Korean migrant workers in Japan, see Pak Kyonshiku,
ChDsenjin KyDsei RenkD no Kiroku
(Mirai-sha, Tokyo, 1965).

8 Yun Myeongsuk, op. cit., pp. 93–94.

9 Ibid., p. 94.

10 Ibid., p. 94.

11 A Korean historian, Song Youn-ok, reports that the majority of Korean prostitutes in this period were married women. See her article, “Japanese Colonial Rule and State-managed Prostitution: Korea’s Licenced Prostitutes” in
Positions: East Asia Cultures
Critique
, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1997, p. 189.

12 Yun Myeongsuk, op. cit., p. 95.

13 Ibid., p. 95.

14 Ibid., pp. 96–97.

15 Song Youn-ok, op. cit., p. 182.

16 Ibid., pp. 181–182.

17 Yun Myeongsuk, op. cit., pp. 100–102.

18
JIS
, Document No. 54, pp. 260–262.

19 Ibid., Document No. 11, pp. 118–120.

20 As Bruce Cumings suggests, the fact that many Korean men were involved in recruit-ing comfort women and running comfort stations may well have been one of the factors that hindered the South Korean Government from investigating this matter for so many years. See B. Cumings, op. cit., p. 179.

21 See, for example, testimonies of former comfort women, Yi Yongsuk, Yi Yongsu, Yi Sunok, Yi Tugnam, Yi Yongyo, and Kim T’aeson, which are all included in Keith Howard ed.,
The Stories of the Korean Comfort Women
(Cassell, New York, 1993).

22 Jong Jinsong, “Nippongun no ‘Ianfu’ Seisaku no Keisei to Henka,” paper presented at the Second Japan–Korea Joint Research Conference in Seoul in December 1993.

23 Keith Howard ed., op. cit., p. 42.

24 Ibid., p. 117.

25 Ibid., p. 81.

26 Ibid., p. 186.

27 Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 100.

28 Ibid., p. 101; Pak Kyonshiku, op. cit., pp. 54–55; and Miyata Setsuko, “Ch
d
sen ni okeru K
d
min-ka Seisaku” in
Kikan SensD Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 7, 1995, pp. 45–46.

29 See her testimony, “Silent Suffering” in Keith Howard ed., op. cit., pp. 168–176.

30 Yun Jeongok et al.,
ChDsenjin JDsei ga Mita “Ianfu Mondai”
(Sanichi Shob
d
, Tokyo, 1992) p. 13–14; Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 101.

31 Keith Howard ed., op. cit., pp. 151–152.

32 The US National Archives (hereafter USNA) collection, United States Office of War Information, Psychological Warfare Team Attached to US Army Forces India–Burma Theater,
Japanese Prisoner of War Interrogation Report, No. 49
.

Notes

187

33 USNA collection, South-East Asian Translation and Interrogation Center,
Psychology
Warfare: Interrogation Bulletin, No. 2
.

34 Taipei-shi Fujo Ky
e
en Shakai Fukushi Jigy
d
Kikin-kai,
Taiwan-chiku Ianfu HDmon ChDsa
Kobetsu Bunseki HDkokusho
( June 1993) pp. 8–14.

35 Ibid., p. 12; Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 111–112.

36 Taipei-shi Fujo Ky
e
en Shakai Fukushi Jigy
d
Kikin-kai, op. cit., pp. 15–17.

37 Ching-Feng Wang and Mei-Fen Chiang, “Japan Should Bear Full Legal Responsibility for Compensation – An Account of Taiwanese Comfort Women’s Quest”, paper presented at the International Conference on Violence Against Women in War and Armed Conflict Situations, held in Tokyo in November 1997, p. 3; It
d
Takashi, “Kokoro no Itami wa Wasurenai: Taiwan Senj
e
minzoku no Nippongun ‘Ianfu’-tachi”

in
Shukan KinyDbi
, No. 230, August 1998, pp. 70–73.

38 It
d
Takashi, op. cit., p. 72.

39 An exceptional case was that of Mun Okuchu. In one of her testimonies, Mun claims that, one autumn evening in 1940, she was kidnapped by a Japanese military policeman on her way home from a friend’s house. In another testimony, she claims that she was kidnapped by three men – a Japanese military policeman, a Korean military policeman, and a Korean police detective. See her testimonies, “Back to my wretched life” in Keith Howard ed., op. cit., pp. 106; and Mun Okuchu,
Biruma Sensen Tate Shidan no
“Ianfu” datta Watashi
(Nashinoki-sha, Tokyo, 1996) p. 28.

40 Su Zhiliang, “The Nanking Massacre and the ‘Comfort Women’ System of the Japanese Military,” paper presented at the International Conference on Violence Against Women in War and Armed Conflict Situations, held in Tokyo in November 1997, p. 5.

41 There is some evidence to indicate that, towards the end of the war, some Chinese women were sent from Guangzhou to various comfort stations in Southeast Asia, in particular Burma. But detailed information about these women is not available. See Fujii Tadatoshi, op. cit., pp. 91–92.

42 For details of atrocities that Japanese men committed against Chinese civilians under the name of the “scorched-earth strategy” in various places in China, see, for example: Kasahara Tokuji, “Ch
e
goku Sensen ni okeru Nippongun no Seihanzai” in
Kikan
SensD Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 13, 1996, pp. 2–11; Fujiwara Akira, “Sank
d
Sakusen to Kita Shina H
d
men-gun” Part I and Part II,
Kikan SensD Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 20 ( pp. 21–29) and No. 21 (pp. 68–75), 1998. A collection of confessions of some former Japanese soldiers who committed atrocities in China is also available in Japanese. See Ch
e
goku Kikansha Renraku-kai ed.,
Watashitachi wa ChEgoku de Nani o Shitaka: Moto Nipponjin
Senpan no Kiroku
(Sanichi Shob
d
, Tokyo, 1987).

43
i
mori Noriko, “Ch
e
gokujin ‘Ianfu’ Sosh
d
: Torikumi no K
b
i to Genj
d
” in
Kikan SensD

Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 15, 1997, pp. 66–69; Kang Jian, “Chinese Women War Victims and the Legal Responsibilities of the Japanese Government”, paper presented at the International Conference on Violence Agaianst Women in War and Armed Conflict Situations, held in Tokyo in November 1997, p. 1.

44 Li Xiumei’s testimony is available in Japanese in
Kikan SensD Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 15, 1997, pp. 72–75.

45 Ibid., p. 74.

46 Liu Mianhuan’s testimony was also published in
Kikan SensD Sekinin KenkyE
, No. 15, 1997, pp. 75–77.

47
JIS
, Document Nos. 67–74.

48 Ibid., No. 67.

49 For details of her experience as a comfort woman, see R. Henson, op. cit.

50 A summary of these 51 testimonies, as well as the complete record of several of them, are now available in Japanese. See
Firippin no Nippongun Ianfu: Seiteki BDryoku no Higaisha-tachi
, compiled by the Panel of Japanese Lawyers Working for the Filipina Comfort Women (Akashi Shoten, Tokyo, 1995). Eighteen of these testimonies are also available in English under the title of
Philippine “Comfort Women” Compensation Suit: Excerpts of
188

Notes

the Complaint
published by the Task Force on Filipino Comfort Women and the Japanese Committee for the Filipino Comfort Women ( Manila, 1993).

51 Sat
d
Yoshitsugu, “Firippin Senry
d
shi” in the Panel of Japanese Lawyers Working for the Filipina “Comfort Women” compiled, op. cit., p. 143.

52 Ibid., p. 52.

53
Philippine “Comfort Women” Compensation Suit: Excerpts of the Complaint
, p. 17.

54 Ibid., p. 53.

55 For details of sexual violence at “rape camps” in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the Bosnian War, see, for example, Alexandra Stiglmayer, “The Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina” in Alexandra Stiglmayer ed.,
Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina
( University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1992) pp. 82–169.

56 Keith Howard, ed., op. cit., p. 90. English translations of the Japanese words in brackets were added by Yuki Tanaka to the original text.

57 As few former Japanese comfort women have so far come forward, it is difficult to draw a general picture of their life during the war. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a Japanese freelance writer, Hirota Kazuko, conducted extensive interviews with a former Japanese comfort woman, Kikumaru, who served at a navy comfort station on Truck Island. According to Kikumaru’s testimony, she served only the officer-class men and was comparatively well treated. Yet she committed suicide at 48 years old in April 1972, having spent most of her postwar life as a sex worker. See, Hirota Kazuko,
ShDgen Kiroku: JEgun Ianfu, Kangofu – SenjyD ni Ikita Onna-tachi no DDkoku
(Shin Jimbutsu
i
rai-sha, Tokyo, 1975) pp. 11–115.

58 Testimony of Nishihira Junichi cited by Fukuchi Hiroaki in his book
Okinawa-sen no
Onna-tachi: ChDsenjin JEgun Ianfu
(Kaif
e
-sha, Naha, 1992) p. 73.

59 Keith Howard ed., op. cit., pp. 53–54.

60 Ibid., p. 45.

61 Ibid., p. 37.

62 Ibid., pp. 84 and 155.

63 Ibid., p. 74.

64 Stated in her compensation suit against the Japanese government, which was submitted to the Tokyo District Court in April 1993, p. 44.

65 USNA collection, Allied Translation and Interpreter Section Research Report No.

120,
Amenities in the Japanese Armed Forces
( November 1945), p. 12. “Chinese” in this chart probably means “Taiwanese.” According to available information and testimonies of former comfort women, it can be confirmed that some Taiwanese women were sent to the Philippines, while so far there is no document or testimony which refers to any Chinese woman from mainland China who was sent to the Philippines.

66 Ibid., p. 10.

67 Yoshimi Yoshiaki,
JEgun Ianfu
, p. 145.

68 Keith Howard ed., op. cit., p. 137.

69 Ibid., p. 129.

70 Ibid., pp. 112–113.

71 Ibid., pp. 118–119.

72 Ibid., p. 85.

73 Ibid., p. 85.