Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (150 page)

34.
Ibid.

35.
Interview with Hanai Mitsuyu, Akira Chihaya, and Sugimoto Takashi, October 2004. In the 1980s Sugimoto was a Chinese-language interpreter and negotiator for New Japan Steel in China during the Baoshan negotiations. See also Pei Hua,
ZhongRi waijiao
, pp. 174–178.

36.
Pei Hua,
ZhongRi waijiao
, p. 164.

37.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu, 1975–1987: Deng Liqun zishu
(Twelve Springs and Autumns, 1975–1987: Deng Liqun's Autobiography) (Hong Kong: Bozhi chubanshe, 2006), pp. 190–195; Deng Liqun, “Fang Ri guilai de sisuo” (Pondering the Return from the Visit to Japan),
Jingji guanli
, no. 3 (March 15, 1979): 7–14.

38.
“Dai ikkai kakuryoo kaigi, Gaimushoo Ajia Kyoku Chuugoku ka” (The First Joint Cabinet Meeting), unpublished document, Chinese Section, Asian Bureau, Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo. The second cabinet meeting was held December 14–17, 1981.

39.
Lanqing Li,
Breaking Through: The Birth of China's Opening-Up Policy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 318–324.

11. Opening to the United States

1.
Memcon, Carter with Huang Zhen, 2/8/77, vertical file, China, box 40, Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta; Memo, Michel Oksenberg to Zbigniew Brzezinski, no. 17, “The Road to Normalization” (nine-page summary of the negotiations written shortly after negotiations were completed), vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library, also available in the Fairbank Collection, Fung Library, Harvard University.

2.
Memcon, Secretary Vance's meeting with Huang Hua, 8/24/77, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library. For various accounts of the discussions leading up to and including normalization talks, see Cyrus Vance,
Hard Choices: Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), pp. 75–83; Jimmy Carter,
Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President
(Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1995), pp. 190–197: Zbigniew Brzezinski,
Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor, 1977–1981
(New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983); Robert S. Ross,
Negotiating Cooperation: The United States and China, 1969–1989
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995); Patrick C. Tyler,
A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China: An Investigative History
(New York: PublicAffairs, 1999); Jimmy Carter, Zbigniew Brzezinski, and Richard N. Gardner, “Being There,”
Foreign Affairs
78, no. 6 (November–December 1999): 164–167; Brent Scowcroft and Patrick Tyler, “Safe Keeping,”
Foreign Affairs
79, no. 1 (January–February 2000): 192–194; James Mann,
About Face: A History of America's Curious Relationship with China from Nixon to Clinton
(New York: Alfred Knopf, 1999); Richard H. Solomon,
U.S
.-PRC Political Negotiations, 1967–1984: An Annotated Chronology(Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1985), which was originally classified but later declassified; Richard H. Solomon,
Chinese Negotiating Behavior: Pursuing Interests through “Old Friends”
(Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1999); Nicholas Platt,
China Boys: How U.S
.
Relations with the PRC Began and Grew
(Washington, D.C.: New Academia, 2009); and Jeffrey T. Richelson, project director,
China and the United States: From Hostility to Engagement, 1960–1998
(Alexandria, Va.: Chadwyck-Healey, 1999). For an account of the issues concerning Taiwan, see Nancy Bernkopf Tucker,
Strait Talk: United States–Taiwan Relations and the Crisis with China
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009) and Alan D. Romberg,
Rein in at the Brink of the Precipice: American Policy toward Taiwan and U.S
.
-PRC Relations
(Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2003). In reconstructing the events of this chapter, I have talked with officials, including President Carter, Walter Mondale, Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stapleton Roy, Chas Freeman, Richard Solomon, Win Lord, Michel Oksenberg, and Nicholas Platt. I also talked with Chinese foreign minister Huang Hua and with Chinese interpreters Ji Chaozhu, Nancy Tang, Zhang Hanzhi, and Shi Yanhua. In addition, I have relied on the Carter Administration China Policy Oral History Project (LWMOT) for which Michel Oksenberg and Leonard Woodcock, after leaving office, met for thirty-nine sessions from the fall of 1981 through the summer
of 1982 to record and preserve for history their account of the normalization process. The records from these sessions are now deposited at the Wayne State University Library and in some of Woodcock's private papers, to which I had access courtesy of his widow, Sharon Woodcock.

3.
Memcon, Meeting of Teng Xiao-ping and Secretary Vance, 8/24/77, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library; Vance,
Hard Choices
, p. 82.

4.
Solomon,
Chinese Negotiating Behavior.

5.
DXPWJHD
, August 24, 1977.

6.
Quotations are from
DXPNP-2
, August 24, 1977.

7.
Vance,
Hard Choices
, p. 82; Solomon,
U.S.-PRC Political Negotiations, 1967–1984
, p. 62.

8.
DXPWJHD
, August 24, 1977.

9.
Vance,
Hard Choices
, pp. 82–83; Ross,
Negotiating Cooperation
, pp. 110–111.

10.
DXPNP-2
, August 24, 1977.

11.
Robert S. Ross,
The Indochina Tangle: China's Vietnam Policy, 1975–1979
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1988);
Renmin ribao
(People's Daily), November 26, 1975.

12.
Memcon, Meeting of Teng Xiao-ping and Secretary Vance, 8/24/77, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library;
DXPWJHD
, September 17, 1977.

13.
Tyler,
A Great Wall
, pp. 249–250.

14.
Cable, Brzezinski to Ambassador Woodcock, 11/18/77, Brzezinski Collection, Geo file, “Brzezinski's Trip [11/19/77–5/14/78],” box 9, Jimmy Carter Library.

15.
Interview with Jimmy Carter, April 2009, and various discussions with Stapleton Roy and Woodcock's widow, Sharon Woodcock. Much of the story is available in Ross,
Negotiating Cooperation
, pp. 126–132. For a discussion of the Brzezinski-Vance rivalry, see Tyler,
A Great Wall
, pp. 237–239.

16.
Memo, Michel Oksenberg to Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Impressions on our China Policy to Date,” 8/23/78, Jimmy Carter Library, also available in the Fair-bank Collection, Fung Library, Harvard University; Michel Oksenberg, “A Decade of Sino-American Relations,”
Foreign Affairs
61, no. 11 (Fall 1982): 184.

17.
Interview with Stapleton Roy, who helped brief Congressional leaders, October 2008.

18.
Memcon, Meeting of Zbigniew Brzezinski and Vice Premier Teng Hsiao P'ing, 5/25/78, vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library.

19.
Memo, Cyrus Vance to the President on “Next Moves on China” Woodcock's Approach, 6/13/78, NSA Staff Material, Far East-Armacost, “Armacost Chron. File [6/14–6/30/78],” box 7, Jimmy Carter Library.

20.
Although secrecy was tightly controlled on the U.S. side, a small number of government officials in Washington were involved in some of the discussions, including Richard Holbrooke, Harry Thayer, Roger Sullivan, James Lilley, Charles Neuhauser, and David Shambaugh.

21.
Memcon, Dr. Brzezinski's meeting with Foreign Minister Huang Hua, May 21, 1978, 9:52 a.m. to 1:20 p.m., vertical file, China, Jimmy Carter Library; Solomon,
U.S.-PRC Political Negotiations, 1967–1984
, p. 64; Brzezinski,
Power and Principle
, p. 212. Brzezinski writes he told Huang Hua that peace in the Far East depended on continued U.S. credibility, which he took as a way of explaining delicately that the United States reserved the right to continue selling arms to Taiwan. In December, however, the Chinese expressed surprise that the United States was planning to continue selling arms to Taiwan. See the record of their conversation as well as Tyler,
A Great Wall
, pp. 254–255.

22.
Carter,
Keeping Faith
, p. 200.

23.
Brzezinski,
Power and Principle
, pp. 213–214.

24.
DXPWJHD
, May 21, 1978.

25.
Oksenberg to Brzezinski, “The Road to Normalization.”

26.
Quotations are from Memcon, Meeting of Zbigniew Brzezinski and Vice Premier Teng Hsiao P'ing, 5/25/78.

27.
Brzezinski,
Power and Principle
, p. 215.

28.
DXPWJHD
, May 22, 1978.

29.
Ibid., August 6, 2005.

30.
Solomon,
U.S.-PRC Political Negotiations, 1967–1984
, pp. 65–69.

31.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 98–111.

32.
DXPNP-2
, July 10, 1978.

33.
Kathlin Smith, “The Role of Scientists in Normalizing U.S.-China Relations: 1965–1979,” in Allison L. C. de Cerreno and Alexander Keynan, eds., “The Role of Scientists in Mitigating International Discord,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
866 (December 1998): 120; interview with Anne Keatley Solomon, the National Academy of Sciences staff official responsible for coordinating the visit, December 2005; Richard C. Atkinson (a member of Press's delegation), “Recollection of Events Leading to the First Exchange of Students, Scholars, and Scientists between the United States and the People's Republic of China,” at
http://www.rca.ucsd.edu/speeches/Recollections_China_student_exchange.pdf
, accessed March 22, 2011. I was a member of the Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China (CSCPRC) for several years and traveled to China with the first delegation of scientists in May 1973. The Chinese scientists were subdued by the Cultural Revolution but hopeful, even though the relationship did not begin to blossom until 1978. In mid-October 1978, Zhou Peiyuan, the de facto president of Peking University, led a delegation of Chinese scholars to the United States to follow up on Deng's request to send scholars to the United States for further study. Due to the poor education during the Cultural Revolution, the number did not reach seven hundred in the first year and many of those who did go were not properly prepared in English. The U.S. government planned to manage exchanges through a government program as they did with exchanges with the Soviet Union, but Zhou Peiyuan, who had received a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, made personal
contacts with scholars on the West Coast before traveling to Washington, D.C., and found ample private arrangements that did not require formal government relations (interview with Anne Keatley Solomon, December 2005); Atkinson, “Recollection of Events”; see also Memo, Frank Press to the President, 10/16/78, Staff Offices Collection: Science and Technology Adviser, Jimmy Carter Library.

34.
Interview with President Jimmy Carter, April 2009.

35.
LWMOT, tape 15, p. 25.

36.
Ross,
Negotiating Cooperation
, p. 159.

37.
Vance to Woodcock, 6/28/78, Brzezinski Collection, box 9, doc. 4, China, Alpha Channel [2/72–11/78], Jimmy Carter Library.

38.
Woodcock to the White House, 7/25/78, Brzezinski Collection, box 9, doc. 4, China, Alpha Channel [2/72–11/78], Jimmy Carter Library.

39.
His autobiography is Huang Hua,
Qinli yu jianwen: Huang Hua huiyilu
(History as I Witnessed It: The Memoirs of Huang Hua) (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2007). The English translation is Hua Huang,
Huang Hua Memoirs
(Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2008).

40.
Vance,
Hard Choices
, p. 117.

41.
Memcon, USLO Peking, “Transcript of CODEL Wolff Meeting with Teng Hsiao-píng,” 7/10/78, vertical file, China, box 40, Jimmy Carter Library.

42.
Interview with Stapleton Roy, October 2008.

43.
Richard Holbrooke and Michel Oksenberg to Ambassador Woodcock, 9/7/78, vertical file, China, box 40, doc. 24, Jimmy Carter Library.

44.
Memcon, “Summary of the President's Meeting with Ambassador Ch'ai Tsemin,” 9/19/78, vertical file, China, box 41, Jimmy Carter Library.