Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (152 page)

35.
The text of the final document is “Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China,” June 27, 1981,
Beijing Review
, no. 27 (July 6, 1981).

36.
Oriana Fallaci, “Deng: Cleaning Up Mao's ‘Feudal Mistakes,’”
Washington Post
, August 31, 1980;
SWDXP-2
, August 21, 23, 1980, pp. 326–334.

37.
DXPNP-2
, October 25, 1980.

38.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 290–292; Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, pp. 160–162.

39.
SWDXP-2
, p. 295.

40.
Ibid., pp. 295–297; Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, pp. 164–166.

41.
A detailed summary of the views of many officials is contained in
Zhongzhi jiguan taolun lishi jueyi (cao'an) jianbao
(Summary of the Discussion on the Resolution on Party History in the Organs directly under the Party Center [draft]), unpublished document available in the Fairbank Collection, Fung Library, Harvard University.

42.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, pp. 103–104;
SWDXP-2
, pp. 289–290.

43.
Resolution on CPC History (1949–81)
(Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1981), pp. 28, 32.

44.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, p. 165.

45.
Deng acknowledged his own errors in this general way, but he did not give concrete examples except when under pressure to do so.

46.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 342–349.

47.
Qian Qichen, “Yici ji bu xunchang de tanhua” (A Very Unusual Interview), in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Central Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), ed.,
Huiyi Deng Xiaoping
, 3 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 1:35–41.

48.
“Zhengfu gongzuo baogao” (Government Work Report), in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Central Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), ed.,
Sanzhong quanhui yilai zhongyao wenjian huibian
(Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1982), June 18, 1979, 1:198–222.

49.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, pp. 166–169; Gaimusho Ajia Kyoku, Chugokuka, May 27–29, 1980 (China Section, Asia Bureau, Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs), declassified, on file in the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

50.
SWDXP-2
, June 22, 1981, pp. 306–308.

51.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, p. 169; ibid., p. 297.

52.
SWDXP-2
, pp. 304–305; Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, p. 196.

53.
“Hu Yaobang zai zhongyang zhengzhiju huiyishang de fayan” (Hu Yaobang Speech to the Politburo Meeting), November 19, 1982, in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi,
Sanzhong quanhui yilai zhongyao wenjian huibian
, 2:735–747.

54.
Interview with someone close to Mao Yuanxin, January 2006.

55.
Deng Liqun,
Shierge chunqiu
, pp. 169–171.

56.
Ibid.

57.
Richard Baum,
Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 116–117.

13. Deng's Art of Governing

1.
SWDXP-2
, p. 329.

2.
From an examination of Deng by Dr. Samuel Rosen, an ear, nose and throat specialist. The information is from David Shambaugh, November 2010.

3.
Carol Lee Hamrin, “The Party Leadership System,” in Kenneth G. Lieberthal and David M. Lampton, eds.,
Bureaucracy, Politics, and Decision Making in Post-Mao China
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 95–124. For lists of members of the party Central Committee, Politburo, and Politburo Standing Committee, see the annual
China Directory, in Pinyin and Chinese
(Tokyo: Radiopress, 1979–present). For an overall summary of the functioning of these institutions, see Kenneth Lieberthal,
Governing China: From Revolution through Reform
, 2d ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004). For more recent developments, see Richard McGregor,
The Party: The Secret World of China's Communist Rulers
(New York: Harper, 2010).

4.
For the concept of
xitong
(vertical functional hierarchy), see A. Doak Barnett, with a contribution by Ezra F. Vogel,
Cadres, Bureaucracy, and Political Power in Communist China
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1967). Also see Lieberthal,
Governing China.

5.
See Hamrin, “The Party Leadership System,” pp. 95–124.

6.
Interviews with Wu Mingyu, one of Deng's bridge partners, August 2006, July 2007.

7.
Interviews with Deng's daughter, Deng Rong, 2002–2006.

8.
Interviews with people who served under Deng; Ezra F. Vogel, “From Friendship to Comradeship: The Change in Personal Relations in Communist China,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 21 (January–March 1965): 46–60.

9.
Wang Wenqing and Liu Yiding, “Gaige kaifang chuqi de renshi zhidu gaige: Fang yuan guojia renshiju juzhang Jiao Shanmin” (Reform of the Personnel System at the Beginning of the Period of Reform and Opening: An Interview with Former Chief of the Personnel Bureau Jiao Shanmin),
Bainianchao
, no. 5 (2007): 42–47. Jiao Shanmin was head of state personnel at the time.

10.
This is an observation by Leonard Woodcock; see LWMOT.

11.
SWDXP-2
, p. 97.

14. Experiments in Guangdong and Fujian

1.
Guoshi
, vol. 10, p. 760.

2.
DXPNP-2
, November 8, 18, 20, 1977;
Guoshi
, vol. 10, p. 760.

3.
Guoshi
, vol. 10, p. 760.

4.
Ibid.

5.
See Ezra F. Vogel,
Canton under Communism: Programs and Politics in a Provincial Capital, 1949–1968
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969).

6.
Yang Shangkun,
Yang Shangkun huiyilu
(Recollections of Yang Shangkun) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2001); Yang Shangkun,
Yang Shangkun riji
(Yang Shangkun's Diary), 2 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2001).

7.
Yang Jisheng,
Zhongguo gaige niandai de zhengzhi douzheng
(Political Struggles during the Period of China's Reform) (Hong Kong: Excellent Culture Press, 2004), pp. 235–236; Xi Zhongxun zhuzheng Guangdong bianweihui (Editorial Committee for Xi Zhongxun in Power in Guangdong),
Xi Zhongxun zhuzheng Guangdong
(Xi Zhongxun in Power in Guangdong) (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2007).

8.
For Gu Mu's summary of some of the key events in setting up the zones, see Gu Mu, “Xiaoping lingdao women zhua kaifang” (Xiaoping Led Us to Grasp Opening),
Bainianchao
, no. 1 (1998): 4–11. Reprinted in Yang Tianshi, ed.,
Deng Xiaoping xiezhen
(A Portrait of Deng Xiaoping) (Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2005), pp. 204–211.

9.
Guoshi
, vol. 10, p. 764.

10.
Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Central Chinese Communist Party Literature Research Office), ed.,
Huiyi Deng Xiaoping
, 3 vols. (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 2:383; “Let's call them special zones. In the past, Shaan-Gan-Ning was called a special zone! There was no money, but the center enacted some policies to make a breakthrough and to hew a path”
(Haishi jiao tequ hao. Guoqu Shaan-gan-ning jiu jiao tequ ma! Meiyou qian, zhongyang gei xie zhengce, you nimen chu chuang. Sha chu yi tiao xue lu), DXPNP-2
, p. 510.

11.
Interview with Yang Li, later vice governor of Guangdong, who took part in the delegation, December 1987.

12.
Following the issuance of Document No. 50 on July 15, a series of circulars by the government and Central Committee were issued on Guangdong, Fujian, and the SEZs. Document No. 27, addressing theoretical questions, was issued on July 19, 1981, Document No. 17, on crimes and smuggling, was issued on March 1, 1982, and Document No. 50, confirming the role of the SEZs, was issued on December 3, 1982. All were issued under the direction of Gu Mu. See Lawrence Reardon, ed., “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (I),”
Chinese Law and Government
27, no. 3 (May–June 1994) and “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (II),”
Chinese Law and Government
27, no. 4 (July–August 1994).

13.
DXPNP-2
, April 17, 1979; Gu Mu, “Xiaoping tongzhi lingdao women zhua duiwai kaifang” (Comrade Xiaoping Led Us to Grasp Reform and Opening), in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi,
Huiyi Deng Xiaoping
, 1:157–158. For Deng's later account of this, see
SWDXP-3
, June 12, 1987, pp. 236–237.

14.
Reardon, “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (I),” pp. 19–44.

15.
Ibid., pp. 45–58.

16.
Sebastian Heilmann, “From Local Experiments to National Policy: The Origins of China's Distinctive Policy Process,”
China Journal
, no. 59 (January 2008): 1–30.

17.
Ou Dajun and Liang Zhao, “Deng Xiaoping jingji tequ lilun” (Deng Xiaoping's Theory on Special Economic Zones),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
, no. 4 (2004): 41–49.

18.
Gao Bowen, “Ershi shiji bashi niandai yanhai diqu jingji fazhan zhanlüe de xuanze jiqi xiaoying” (The Choice of Economic Development Strategy in China's Coastal Regions in the 1980s and Its Effects),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
, no. 4 (2005): 92–100.

19.
Xu Maohui and Xu Weisheng, “Deng Xiaoping quyu jingji xietiao fazhan sixiang xingcheng de tiaojian” (Deng Xiaoping's Thoughts on the Conditions for the Formation of Coordinated Regional Economic Development),
Dangdai Zhongguo shi yanjiu
, no. 4 (2004): 80–85.

20.
China Data Center,
National and Provincial Statistics
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, various years).

21.
Gu Mu,
Gu Mu huiyi lu
(Recollections of Gu Mu) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2009), p. 256.

22.
Reardon, “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (I),” pp. 21–32.

23.
Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi,
Huiyi Deng Xiaoping
, 2:383.

24.
Wang Shuo, “Teshi teban: Hu Yaobang yu jingji tequ” (Special Issues, Special Procedures: Hu Yaobang and the Special Economic Zones),
Yanhuang chunqiu
, no. 4 (2008): 37.

25.
Christine Loh,
Underground Front: The Chinese Communist Party in Hong Kong
(Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010), pp. 152–153.

26.
Reardon, “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (I),” p. 22.

27.
These observations are based on my field work in Guangdong in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1980 I was there for two months. In the early 1980s, I took several field trips, and from 1985 through the 1990s I made at least one field trip per year. In 1986, I spent six months in Guangdong and had a chance to travel to each of the prefectures and to visit enterprises in some thirty counties. See Ezra F. Vogel,
One Srep Ahead in China: Guangdong under Reform
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).

28.
Reardon, “China's Coastal Development Strategy, 1979–1984 (II),” pp. 32–33.

29.
Lu Di, “Weiren de danshi he xionghuai: Ji Ren Zhongyi huiyi Deng Xiaoping” (The Courage, Insight, and Cherished Memory of the Great Man: Remembering Ren Zhongyi's Recollections of Deng Xiaoping),
Bainianchao
, no. 8 (2008): 18–19;
Guoshi
, vol. 10, pp. 771–772.

30.
For a description of the influence of the growing wealth on families, including their new consumption patterns, see Charlotte Ikels,
The Return of the God of Wealth: The Transition to a Market Economy in Urban China
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996).