The Coming Plague (139 page)

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Authors: Laurie Garrett

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120
K. Hopper, “New Urban Niche,”
Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine
66 (1990): 435–50.
121
Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health, Institute of Medicine,
The Future of Public Health
(Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988).
122
Centers for Disease Control, “Measles—New York,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
29 (1980): 452–53; and Centers for Disease Control, “Measles—United States, First 39 Weeks of 1980,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
29 (1980): 501–2.
123
Averaged across all ages, encephalitis, which can lead to permanent brain damage and/or death, occurs in one out of every 2,000 measles cases in industrialized nations. Death due to either respiratory failure or neurological damage occurs in one out of every 3,000 measles cases. See Centers for Disease Control, “Measles Prevention,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
36 (1987): 409–25.
124
T. L. Gustafson, A. W. Lievens, P. A. Brunell, et al., “Measles Outbreak in a Fully Immunized Secondary-School Population,”
New England Journal of Medicine
316 (1987): 771–74.
125
M. B. Edmonson, D. G. Addiss, J. T. McPherson, et al., “Mild Measles and Secondary Vaccine Failure During a Sustained Outbreak in a Highly Vaccinated Population,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
263 (1990): 2467–71.
126
S. H. Lee, D. P. Ewert, P. D. Frederick, and L. Mascola, “Resurgence of Congenital Rubella Syndrome in the 1990s,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
267 (1992): 2616–20; D. E. Shalala, “Giving Pediatric Immunizations the Priority They Deserve,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
269 (1993): 1844–45; and Centers for Disease Control, “Resurgence of Pertussis—United States, 1993,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
42 (1993): 952–65.
127
V. S. Mitchell, N. M. Philipose, J. P. Sanford,
The Children's Vaccine Initiative: Achieving the Vision
(Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, 1993); G. Peter, “On the Measles Epidemic,” testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Health and the Environment of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, March 11, 1991; and National Vaccine Advisory Committee, “The Measles Epidemic: The Problems, Barriers and Recommendations,” Executive Report, January 8, 1991, Washington, D.C. [a summary can be found in the
Journal of the American Medical Association
266 (1991): 1547–52].
128
A great deal has been written elsewhere about this alarming trend, which worsened markedly after 1985. The lack of primary health care in impoverished urban areas, overutilization of tertiary facilities, and greater cost to society have been well documented elsewhere.
See, for example, D. E. Rogers and E. Ginzberg,
Medical Care and the Health of the Poor
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); L. K. Abraham,
Mama Might Be Better Off Dead: The Failure of Health Care in Urban America
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); A. Carper, “Ailing Grades: Index Shows Need for More Primary Care,”
New York Newsday,
October 10, 1993: 7, 58; J. Hadley, E. P.
Steinberg, and J. Feder, “Comparison of Uninsured and Privately Insured Hospital Patients,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
265 (1991): 374–79; V. R. Fuchs and D. M. Reklis, “America's Children: Economic Perspectives and Policy Options,”
Science
255 (1992): 41–46; J. Mangaliman and K. Freifeld, “City Hell for Kids,”
New York Newsday,
September 30, 1993: 4; and C. Woodard, “Report: Many Kids Not Immunized,”
New York Newsday,
September 1, 1993: 12.
129
S. F. Davis, P. M. Strebel, W. L. Atkinson, et al., “Reporting Efficiency During a Measles Outbreak in New York City, 1991,”
American Journal of Public Health
83 (1993): 1011–15; and S. Friedman, “Measles in New York City,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
266 (1991): 1220.
130
According to Bloom, in 1992 the following were the rates of successful completion of childhood vaccination recommended by age two in selected areas of the United States:
City/State
% of Children Age 2 Who Have Fulfilled WHO Vaccination Recommendations (excluding BCG)
Houston
10
Bronx, NY
38
Miami
27
New Hampshire
79
Vermont
68
Tennessee
70
Massachusetts
57
California
48
New York State
56
Arkansas
42
Utah
36
Missouri
44
New York City
38
Chicago
27
See also J. Cohen, “Childhood Vaccines: The R and D Factor,” Science 259 (1993): 1528–29; and “Vaccine Demand and Supply,” in Mitchell, Philipose, and Sanford (1993), op. cit.
131
Centers for Disease Control, “Vaccination Coverage of 2-Year-Old Children—United States, 1991–92,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
42 (1994): 985–88; E. R. Zell, V. Dietz, J. Stevenson, et al., “Low Vaccination Levels of U.S. Preschool and School-Age Children,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
271 (1994): 833–39; and Centers for Disease Control, “Reported Vaccine-Preventable Diseases—United States, 1993, and the Childhood Immunization Initiative,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
43 (1994): 57–61.
132
See R. Dubos and J. Dubos,
The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2nd paperback edition, 1992); and F. Ryan,
The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle Against Tuberculosis Was Won—and
Lost (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992).
133
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, “The Project Years 1961–69,”
Tuberculosis Program Reports
(December 1970).
134
Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis in the United States: 1981–84,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C., 1986.
135
See Chapter 9 of this book for further discussion of tuberculosis in urban centers of the Western world prior to 1981.
136
M. A. Barry, C. Wall, L. Shirley, et al., “Tuberculosis Screening in Boston's Homeless Shelters,”
Public Health Reports
101 (1986): 487–94; P. W. Brickner, B. Scanlan, A. Conan, et al., “Homeless Persons and Health Care,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
101 (1986): 405–9; Centers for Disease Control, “Drug Resistant Tuberculosis Among the Homeless,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
34 (1985): 429–32; R. Glickman, “Tuberculosis Screening and Treatment of New York City Homeless People,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Science
435 (1984): 19–21; E. B. Narde, B. Mclnnis, B. Thomas, and S. Weidhass, “Exogenous Reinfection with Tuberculosis in a Shelter for the Homeless,”
New England Journal of Medicine
315 (1986): 1570–75; and A. Pablos-Mendez, M. C. Raviglione, R. Battan, and R. Ramos-Zuñiga, “Drug Resistant Tuberculosis Among the Homeless in New York City,”
New York State Journal of Medicine
90 (1990): 351–55.
137
M. N. Sherman, “Tuberculosis in Single-Room-Occupancy Hotel Residents: A Persisting Focus of Disease,”
New York Medical Quarterly
1 (1980): 39–41.
138
Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis, Final Data—United States, 1986.”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
36 (1988): 817–19; and Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis—
United States, 1985—and the Possible Impact of Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type III/Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus Infection,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
33 (1986): 74–79.
139
Global Programme on AIDS and Tuberculosis Programme, “Statement on AIDS and Tuberculosis,” World Health Organization, WHO/GPA, INF/89.4, March 1989; and A. D. Harries, “Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Developing Countries,”
Lancet
335 (1990): 387–90.
140
C. L. Daley, “Tuberculosis Recurrence in Africa: True Relapse or Re-Infection?”
Lancet
342 (1993): 756–57; and J. D. Klausner, R. W. Ryder, E. Baende, et al., “
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
in Household Contacts of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1-Seropositive Patients with Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Kinshasa, Zaire,”
Journal of Infectious Diseases
168 (1993): 106–11.
141
K. M. DeCock, “Tuberculosis and HIV Infection in Sub-Saharan Africa,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
268 (1992): 1581–87.
142
M. Hawken, P. Nunn, S. Gathua, et al., “Increased Recurrence of Tuberculosis in HIV-1-Infected Patients in Kenya,”
Lancet
342 (1993): 332–37; and A. L. Pozniak, “The Influence of HIV Status on Single and Multiple Drug Reactions to Antituberculosis Therapy in Africa,”
AIDS
6 (1992): 809–14.
143
Y. Mukadi, J. H. Perriens, M. E. St. Louis, et al., “Spectrum of Immunodeficiency in HIV-1-Infected Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Zaire,”
Lancet
342 (1993): 143–46; and Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculin Reactions in Apparently Healthy HIV-Seropositive and HIV-Seronegative Women in Uganda,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
39 (1990): 638–46.
144
D. S. Shepard, R. N. Bail, and A. Bucyendore, “Costs of AIDS Care in Rwanda,” Report to the Bigel Institute for Health Policy, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, 1992; and K. B. Noble, “AIDS Linked to TB Outbreak in Africa,”
New York Times
, April 29, 1990: A14.
145
H. L. Rieder, G. M. Cauthen, G. W. Comstock, and D. E. Snider, “Epidemiology of Tuberculosis in the United States,”
Epidemiologic Reviews
11 (1989): 79–96.
146
Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis Morbidity in the United States: Final Data, 1990,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
40 (1991): SS23–SS27.
147
J. J. Ellner, A. R. Hinman, S. W. Dooley, et al., “Tuberculosis Symposium: Emerging Problems and Promise.”
Journal of Infectious Diseases
168 (1993): 537–51.
148
G. Sunderam, R. J. McDonald, T. Maniatis, et al., “Tuberculosis as a Manifestation of the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),”
Journal of the American Medical Association
256 (1986): 362–66; Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome—Florida,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
35 (1986): 587–90; J. Garrison, “AIDS Fuels Sharp Rise in TB Cases,”
San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle
, December 27, 1987: Al; Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome—New York City,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
36 (1987): 785–95; and Centers for Disease Control, “Tuberculosis and AIDS—Connecticut,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
36 (1987): 133–35.
149
Tuberculosis rates in Harlem had always been exceptionally high.
 
NEW YORK CITY TUBERCULOSIS (cases per 100,000):

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