Undocumented : How Immigration Became Illegal (9780807001684) (30 page)

49.
Zolberg, “A Century of Informality.”

50.
Snodgrass, “Patronage and Progress,” 254–55.

51.
Ibid., 257, 260.

52.
Ibid., 261.

53.
Michael Snodgrass, “The Bracero Program, 1942–1964,” in Overmyer-Velázquez,
Beyond La Frontera
, 91.

54.
Mark Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction: Histories and Historiographies of Greater Mexico,” in Overmyer-Velázquez,
Beyond La Frontera
, xxxvii.

55.
Cited in Kanstroom,
Deportation Nation
, 219.

56.
Ibid., 222.

57.
Wetbacks
is a derogatory term referring to the idea that Mexicans entered the country by crossing the Rio Grande river and avoiding official entry points.

58.
Cindy Hahamovitch,
No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 124–25.

59.
Don Mitchell,
They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 223.

60.
Mae Ngai,
Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 153.

61.
Kanstroom,
Deportation Nation
, 224.

62.
Snodgrass, “The Bracero Program,” 91.

63.
See Kanstroom,
Deportation Nation
, 161.

64.
David G. Gutiérrez,
Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 154. See also Lorena Oropeza,
¡Raza Sí, Guerra No! Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), for an analysis of Mexican American organizations’ aspirations toward acceptance as white in the midcentury.

65.
Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 22.

66.
Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xxxviii.

67.
Oscar J. Martínez, “Migration and the Border, 1965–1985,” in Overmyer-Velázquez,
Beyond La Frontera
, 110.

68.
Ibid., 106.

69.
Ibid., 111.

70.
Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey, “What We Learned from the Mexican Migration Project,” in
Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration Project
, ed. Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 6.

71.
Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xlii.

72.
Helen B. Marrow, “Race and the New Southern Migration, 1986 to the Present,” in Overmyer-Velázquez,
Beyond La Frontera
, 130.

73.
Philip L. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry: IRCA and US Agriculture,”
Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science
534 (July 1994): 50–51.

74.
See Roberto Suro, “False Migrant Claims: Fraud on a Huge Scale,”
New York Times
, November 12, 1989.

75.
See ibid.

76.
Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry,” 52.

77.
Nicholas De Genova,
Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 237–381.

78.
Durand and Massey, “What We Learned from the Mexican Migration Project,” 11–12.

79.
The Mexican governments identifies four regions of out-migration: The Traditional region, encompassing Aguascalientes, Colima, Durango, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas; the Northern region, comprised of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, Sinaloa, Sonora and Tamaulipas; the Central region: Distrito Federal, Hidalgo, México, Morelos, Puebla, Querétaro and Tlaxcala; and the South-Southeast region: Campeche, Chiapas, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz y Yucatán. See Consejo Nacional de Población, “Flujos Migratorios EMIF Norte,”
http://conapo.gob.mx/es/CONAPO/flujos_Migratorios_EMIF_NORTE
.

80.
In Mexico,
mestizos
generally refers to people of mixed Spanish and indigenous origin.

81.
See Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xxxii; Angus Wright,
The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990; rev. ed., 2005), 138, 309; Jeffrey Harris Cohen,
The Culture of Migration in Southern Mexico
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004); David Bacon,
Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants
(Boston: Beacon Press, 2008), especially
chap. 2
.

82.
Lynnaire M. Sheridan,
“I Know It’s Dangerous”: Why Mexicans Risk Their Lives to Cross the Border
(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 56.

83.
Ibid., 57.

84.
De Genova argues that today’s “illegality” is something “produced” by the law, rather than by the actions of individual Mexicans (
Working the Boundaries
,
chap. 6
, esp. p. 244).

85.
For a historical summary of Mayan migration, see Christopher H. Lutz and W. George Lovell, “Survivors on the Move: Maya Migration in Time and Space,” in
The Maya Diaspora: Guatemalan Roots, New American Lives
, ed. James Loucky and Marilyn M. Moors (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 11–34.

86.
See David McCreery,
Rural Guatemala, 1760–1940
(Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Julio C. Cambranes,
Café y campesinos en Guatemala, 1853–1897
(Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria, 1985); Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 32.

87.
Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 32.

88.
Rigoberta Menchu, with Elisabeth Debray,
I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman from Guatemala
(New York: Verso, 1987), 21–23.

89.
Ibid., 23.

90.
Daniel Wilkinson,
Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 43.

91.
Patricia Foxen,
In Search of Providence: Transnational Mayan Identities
(Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2007), 63.

92.
Ibid., 78.

93.
Ibid., 99.

94.
Ibid., 100. David Stoll describes a similar phenomenon in another Guatemalan town, where labor contractors have been using force, debt, or landlessness and need to recruit indigenous workers for migrant labor for over a century. Today’s coyotes and contractors simply recruit them to work in another country. David Stoll,
El Norte or Bust! How Migration Fever and Microcredit Produced a Financial Crash in a Latin American Town
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 198.

95.
Stoll describes this process in
El Norte or Bust!
, 89.

96.
Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 33.

97.
Foxen,
In Search of Providence
, 149.

98.
Ibid., 115.

99.
Ibid., 115; Sarah J. Mahler,
American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 141.

100.
Erik Camayd-Freixas,
US Immigration Reform and its Global Impact: Lessons from the Postville Raid
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 100.

101.
Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,”
New York Times
, April 26, 2013.

CHAPTER 3: BECOMING ILLEGAL

1.
Ruth Ellen Wasem,
Nonimmigrant Overstays: Brief Synthesis of the Issue
, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, May 22, 2006,
http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/library/P735.pdf
.

2.
Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, “2010 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics,” table 26,
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2010/ois_yb_2010.pdf
.

3.
Randall Monger, “Non-Immigrant Admissions to the United States, 2011,” Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, July 2012,
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ni_fr_2011.pdf;
Department of State, “Non-Immigrant Visas Issued, 2007–2011,”
http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/NIVClassIssued-DetailedFY2007–2011.pdf;
Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Visa Issuance by Visa Class and Nationality, FY 2011,”
http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/FY11NIVDetailTable.pdf
. The Visa Waiver Program applies to thirty-seven mostly European countries and allows would-be visitors to be processed at the border without obtaining a visa prior to departure.

4.
In 2009, 126.8 million of 163 million total entries were Border Crossing Cards rather than nonimmigrant visa entries. See Ruth Ellen Wasem,
US Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions
, Congressional Research Service, February 8, 2011, 15–16,
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL31381.pdf
.

5.
Pew Hispanic Center, “Modes of Entry for the Unauthorized Migrant Population,” May 22, 2006,
http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/19.pdf
.

6.
Lynnaire M. Sheridan,
“I Know It’s Dangerous”: Why Mexicans Risk Their Lives to Cross the Border
(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 66.

7.
Ibid., 61.

8.
Ibid., 79.

9.
See Florida Fruit and Vegetable Association, “Who Will Harvest the Food?” November 2011,
http://www.ffva.com/imis/files/12/97/38/f129738/public/Content/NavigationMenu2/NewsCenter/HarvesterOnline/Mainfeature1111/default.htm
.

10.
United States Government Accountability Office, “Report to the Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives: H-2B VISA PROGRAM Closed Civil and Criminal Cases Illustrate Instances of H-2B Workers Being Targets of Fraud and Abuse,” September 2010, 4,
http://www.gao.gov/assets/320/310640.pdf
.

11.
Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas,”
Impremedia
, May 11, 2011,
http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/11/a-merced-de-fraudes-con-visas-255317–1.html
.

12.
Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “El botín de los coyotes: Miles deben pagar para tramitar trabajo temporal en EEUU,”
Impremedia
, May 9, 2011,
http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/9/el-botin-de-los-coyotes-legale-254910–2.html
.

13.
Dan LaBotz, “Farm Labor Organizer Murdered in Mexico, Labor Contractors Suspected,”
CounterPunch
, April 14–16, 2007,
http://www.counterpunch.org/labotz04142007.html
.

14.
Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas.”

15.
Southern Poverty Law Center,
Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States
, April 2007,
http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/publications/close-to-slavery-guestworker-programs-in-the-united-states#.UaIQ-cokSSo
.

16.
Jeffrey Passel, D’Vera Cohn, and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero—and Perhaps Less,” Pew Hispanic Center, April 23, 2012,
http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/vi-characteristics-of-mexican-born-immigrants-living-in-the-u-s/
.

17.
Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos (CNDH), “Informe especial sobre secuestro de migrantes en México,” February 22, 2011, 5,
http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/fuentes/documentos/informes/especiales/2011_secmigrante.pdf
.

18.
Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,”
New York Times
, April 26, 2013.

19.
Olga R. Rodríguez, “Central American Migrants Flood North Through Mexico to US,”
Huffington Post
, July 13, 2012,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/13/central-americans-in-the-united-states_n_1671551.html
.

20.
Abril Trigo,
Memorias migrantes: Testimonios y ensayos sobre la diáspora uruguaya
(Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2003), 190.

21.
Maxine L. Margolis,
Little Brazil: An Ethnography of Brazilian Immigrants in New York City
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 49–50.

22.
Samuel Martinez, “Migration from the Caribbean: Economic and Political Factors versus Legal and Illegal Status,” in
Illegal Immigration in America: A Reference Handbook
, ed. David W. Haines and Karen E. Rosenblum (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 278–79.

23.
Margolis,
Little Brazil
, 51.

24.
Kurt Birson, “Mexico: Abuses against US Bound Migrant Workers,”
NACLA Report
, September 23, 2010,
https://nacla.org/node/6753
.

25.
Centro de Derechos Humanos Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez, A.C. (Centro ProDH) et al., “Secuestros a personas migrantes en tránsito por México,” 7–8,
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/docs/ngos/prodh_Mexico_CAT47.pdf
.

26.
Sebastian Rotella, “The New Border: Illegal Immigration’s Shifting Frontier,”
ProPublica
, December 6, 2012,
http://www.propublica.org/article/the-new-border-illegal-immigrations-shifting-frontier
.

27.
Paul Imison, “The Freight Train That Runs to the Heart of Mexico’s ‘Drugs War’: Riding ‘La Bestia’ to Freedom or Death,”
Independent
, February 3, 2013; Archibold, “In Trek North”; Karl Penhaul, “‘Train of Death’ Drives Migrant American Dreamers,” CNN, June 25, 2010,
http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/06/23/mexico.train.death/index.html
. See also Sonia Nazario,
Enrique’s Journey
(New York: Random House, 2007).