The Wizards of Langley (52 page)

1
. Thomas F. Troy,
Donovan and the CIA: A History of the Establishment of the Central Intelligence
Agency
(Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1981), pp. 406–407, 471–472.

2
. Ibid., pp. 349, 464–465; Christopher Andrew,
For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence
and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush
(New York: HarperCollins, 1995), pp. 168–169.

3
. John Ranelagh,
The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA, from Wild Bill Donovan to
William Casey
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), p. 112.

4
. Ronald Kessler,
Inside the CIA: Revealing the Secrets of the World’s Most Powerful Spy Agency
(New York: Pocket Books, 1992), p. 140; Richard M. Bissell with Jonathan E. Lewis and Francis T. Pudlo,
Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 98.

5
. Center for the Study of Intelligence,
Declassified National Intelligence Estimates of the Soviet
Union and International Communism
(Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1996), pp. 4, 6.

6
. Brig. Gen. E. K. Wright, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, “Establishment and Functions of the Nuclear Energy Group, Scientific Branch, Office of Reports and Estimates,” in C. Thomas Thorne Jr. and David S. Patterson (eds.),
Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), pp. 503–505; Charles A. Zeigler and David Jacobson,
Spying Without Spies: Origins of America’s Secret Nuclear Surveillance System
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995), pp. 60–63; George S. Jackson and Martin P. Clausen,
Organizational History of the
Central Intelligence Agency, 1950–1953
(Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1957), p. 3; interview with Henry S. Lowenhaupt, Springfield, Virginia, April 15, 1999.

7
. Lowenhaupt interview; CIA Public Affairs Staff, “‘Trailblazers’ and Years of CIA Service,”
www.odci.gov/cia
, March 13, 1999.

8
. David Z. Beckler, Chief of the Intelligence Section, JRDB, “The Critical Situation in Regard to Atomic Energy Intelligence,” December 2, 1947, in Thorne and Patterson (eds.),
Emergence of the Intelligence
Establishment
, pp. 820–821.

9
. Brig. Gen. E. K. Wright, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, “Operations-Intelligence Relationship of CIG with JRDB,” March 13, 1947, in Thorne and Patterson (eds.),
Emergence of the Intelligence
Establishment
, pp. 502–503.

10
. Ronald E. Doel and Allan A. Needell, “Science, Scientists, and the CIA: Balancing International Ideals, National Needs, and Professional Opportunities,”
Intelligence and National Security
12, 1 (January 1997): 59–81 at p. 62.

11
. Ralph L. Clark, Director of Programs Division, to Dr. Vannevar Bush, Chairman, RDB, “CIA Situation,” December 3, 1947, in Thorne and Patterson (eds.),
Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment
, pp. 818–819.

12
. Doel and Needell, “Science, Scientists, and the CIA,” p. 63.

13
. Ibid., pp. 63–65; Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence
Agency
, p. VI-14; Brig. Gen. E. K. Wright, DDCI, Memorandum for Assistant Director for Special Operations et al., Subject: Additional Functions of the Office of Special Operations, March 5, 1948, 2000 CIA Release, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).

14
. Doel and Needell, “Science, Scientists, and the CIA,” p. 65.

15
. Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence Agency
, p. 1.

16
. Allen W. Dulles, William H. Jackson, and Mathias F. Correa,
The Central Intelligence Agency
and National Organization for Intelligence
(Washington, D.C.: National Security Council, January 1, 1949), p. 56.

17
. Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence Agency
, pp. VI-3, VI- 16, VI-16 n. 2; Ludwell Lee Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence,
October 1950–February 1953
(University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992), p. 174; Robert Blum to Mathias F. Corea, December 18, 1948, in Thorne and Patterson (eds.),
Emergence
of the Intelligence Establishment
, p. 902.

18
. Doel and Needell, “Science, Scientists, and the CIA,” p. 66.

19
. Ibid., p. 67.

20
. Willard Machle, Assistant Director for Scientific Intelligence, to Rear Admiral Roscoe Hil-lenkoetter, Director of Central Intelligence, “Inability of OSI to Accomplish Its Mission,” September 29, 1949, in Thorne and Patterson (eds.),
Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment
, pp. 1012–1016; Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence Agency
, p. VI- 19; interview with Karl Weber, Oakton, Virginia, May 5, 1999.

21
. Machle, “Inability of OSI to Accomplish Its Mission”; Memorandum for the Record, Subject: Responsibilities of the Office of Scientific Intelligence (Summary of discussion between [deleted], OSI and Mr. Piel [deleted] of Management), November 29, 1951, NARA, RG 263, 1998 CIA, Box 209, Folder 3.

22
. Director of Central Intelligence Directive 3/3, “Scientific Intelligence,” October 28, 1949; Weber interview.

23
. Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October
1950–February 1953
, pp. 174–175.

24
. Ibid., p. 175; Weber interview.

25
. Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October
1950–February 1953
, p. 176.

26
. Ibid., pp. 177–178; Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence
Agency
, pp. VI-59 to VI-60.

27
. Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October
1950–February 1953
, pp. 177–178; Ranelagh,
The Agency
, pp. 196–197; Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational
History of the Central Intelligence Agency
, p. VI-66.

28
. Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October
1950–February 1953
, p. 179; Director of Central Intelligence 3/4, “Production of Scientific and Technical Intelligence,” August 14, 1952; Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central
Intelligence Agency
, p. VI-74.

29
. Montague,
General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950-
February 1953
, p. 180.

30
. Ranelagh,
The Agency
, pp. 197, 729–730.

31
. Central Intelligence Agency Notice No. 20-191-71, “Announcement of Key Positions,” June 28, 1955; Central Intelligence Agency, Memo for Awards Committee, National Civil Service League, November 28, 1958.

32
. Director of Central Intelligence Directive No. 3/5, “Production of Scientific and Technical Intelligence,” February 3, 1959.

33
. Doel and Needell, “Science, Scientists, and the CIA,” pp. 70–71.

34
. Michael Warner, CIA History Staff, Memorandum for the Record, Subject: The Central Intelligence Agency and Human Radiation Experiments: An Analysis of the Findings, February 14, 1995, p. 11.

35
. Jackson and Clausen,
Organizational History of the Central Intelligence Agency
, p. 67 n.49.

36
. Intelligence Advisory Committee, NIE 11-3A-54,
Summary: The Soviet Atomic Energy Program
to Mid-1957
, February 16, 1954, pp. 1–4.

37
.
Allen Welsh Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence, 26 February 1953–29 November 1961,
Volume II, Coordination of Intelligence
(Washington, D.C.: CIA, 1973), pp. 42–43; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-6-54,
Soviet Capabilities and Probable Programs in the Guided Missile
Field
, October 1954, pp. ii-iii, 1.

38
.
Allen Welsh Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence
, pp. 46–47, 51n., 58; Annex D to Director of Central Intelligence Directive 3/4, “Terms of Reference for the Guided Missile Intelligence Committee,” January 31, 1956; “Summary Statement of IAC Actions Leading to Consideration of a Guided Missile Intelligence Committee,” n.d., NARA, RG 263, 1998 CIA Release, Box 188, Folder 6; interview with Henry Plaster, Vienna, Virginia, September 30, 1999.

39
. Avner Cohen,
Israel and the Bomb
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), p. 84; Office of Scientific Intelligence, CIA, NIE 38–58,
The Netherlands Nuclear Energy Program
, November 10, 1958; Office of Scientific Intelligence, CIA,
The French Nuclear Weapons Program
, November 13, 1959.

40
. Henry S. Lowenhaupt, “The Decryption of a Picture,”
Studies in Intelligence
1, 3 (Summer 1957): 41–53.

41
. John Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate”: The CIA and Mind Control
(New York: Norton, 1991), pp. 59, 79, 80, 83; U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (hereinafter Senate Select Committee),
Final
Report, Book I: Foreign and Military Intelligence
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 390, 395–397.

42
. Tim Weiner, “Sidney Gottlieb, 80, Dies; Took LSD to C.I.A.,”
New York Times
, March 10, 1999, p. C22; Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,”
pp. 59–60; Evan Thomas,
The Very Best
Men, Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 211.

43
. Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,”
pp. 24–25, 27; U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee,
Final Report, Book I
, p. 387.

44
. Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,”
pp. 31–32, 44, p. 59.

45
. Ibid., pp. 60–61; U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee,
Final Report, Book I
, p. 390.

46
. Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,”
p. 62.

47
. Ibid., pp. 61–62; U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee,
Final Report, Book I
, p. 389.

48
. Marks,
The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,”
pp. 90, 108; Ranelagh,
The Agency
, p. 207.

49
. James R. Killian Jr.,
Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant
to the President for Science and Technology
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982), pp. 67–68.

50
. Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead
Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954–1974
(Washington, D.C.: CIA, 1992), Preface.

51
. Donald E. Welzenbach, “Science and Technology: Origins of a Directorate,”
Studies in Intelligence
30, 2 (Summer 1986): 13–26 at 13–15; Victor K. McElheny,
Insisting on the Impossible: The
Life of Edwin Land, Inventor of Instant Photography
(Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1998), p. 294.

52
. Killian,
Sputniks, Scientists, and Eisenhower
, p. 79; McElheny,
Insisting on the Impossible
, p. 301.

53
. Donald Welzenbach, “Din Land: Patriot from Polaroid,”
Optics and Photonics News
5, 10 (October 1996): 22ff; Attachment 1, Memorandum for: Director of Central Intelligence, Subject: A Unique Opportunity for Comprehensive Intelligence, November 5, 1954.

54
. Ranelagh,
The Agency
, p. 314.

55
. “A Unique Opportunity for Comprehensive Intelligence—A Summary,” attachment, Edwin Land to Allen W. Dulles, November 5, 1954.

56
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 4; R. Cargill Hall, “Post-War Strategic Reconnaissance and the Genesis of Corona,” in Dwayne A. Day, John Logsdon, and Brian Latell (eds.),
Eye in the Sky: The Story of the CORONA Spy Satellites
(Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1998), pp. 86–118 at pp. 87–92.

57
. Edwin Land to Allen Dulles, November 5, 1954.

58
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 32–35, 40; A. J. Goodpaster, “Memorandum of Conference with the President, 0810, 24 November 1954,” November 24, 1954, Ann C. Whitman Diary, November 1954, Box 3, Ann C. Whitman File, DDE Papers as President, Dwight David Eisenhower Library (DDEL); Peter Grose,
Gentleman Spy:
The Life of Allen Dulles
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), p. 405; Chris Pocock,
Dragon Lady: The
History of the U-2 Spyplane
(Shrewsbury, England: Airlife, 1989), p. 26; Oral History Interview with Richard Bissell Jr., Columbia University, 1973, p. 42.